Introduction to circulation and types of circulation systems

Sir William Osler said in 1917, “The librarian of today, and it will be true still more of the librarians tomorrow, are not fiery dragons interposed between the public and the books. They are useful public servants, who manage libraries in the interest of the public…”

Roles of circulation
Most people who have used a library are familiar with the circulation desk. In a medium to large-sized library, the circulation desk is a hub of activity with people asking many questions and bringing up armloads of library materials. In fact, from the viewpoint of many library users, the circulation desk is the library. In order to use the library, they have to talk with the circulation desk staff and apply for a “library card”. Users have to “check out” materials at the circulation desk. And of course, if items become “overdue”, users can expect to receive some kind of “overdue notice” from the circulation desk requesting that the item be returned and a bill outlining the “overdue fines”. All of these procedures tend to lead to certain stereotypes about the library and library personnel. In fact, many people think librarians spend all day checking out books and putting them away. A number of cartoonists have entertained the public with visions of “Conan the Librarian” coming after hapless library users to claim overdue library items, extract overdue fines, and supply punishment for daring to bend, fold, spindle or mutilate library materials. These public perceptions point to the two important roles of library circulation services:

• Control and regulation of access to library materials
• Service and public relations.

Control and regulation of materials
In any size or type of library (public, school, academic, or special), the circulation department provides the library user with the means of utilizing materials housed in the library. The basic purpose of circulation is the control and regulation of library materials. We have come to assume that the use of library materials outside the library as standard operating procedure for most types of libraries. However the concept of freely circulating materials is an idea that only developed in the late 1800s as public libraries became recognized as places that could stimulate improvements in society by helping users to learn on their own.
Prior to 1900, the role of control of library materials was emphasized over use, service, or public relations. For example, a typical Victorian-age free library in Canada might include a grilled-in book stack room from which users requested library staff to retrieve materials that were then read under supervision in a secure reading room within the library. A more “modern” library would have a separate reading area for women. Children under 16 were less fortunate; generally, they w ere completely denied access to library materials. Such “closed stacks” (i.e. book stacks that are not freely accessible to patrons) arrangements emphasized the physical custody of library books – preservation and conservation – over use. These restrictions reflected a centuries long tradition of libraries as places to preserve and guard knowledge. Historically the use of books was restricted because they were very expensive and few people (mostly rich men) were literate. Library personnel were regarded as custodians of materials. Strict control on the circulation of materials was felt to be necessary because they were difficult and costly to replace.
Take a moment to reflect on the types of policies and procedures that might be in place in a Victorian-age Canadian public library. How would it be different from managing a collection that had book stacks that were open to the public and that could be borrowed and used outside the library? Some ideas include:
Library patrons/staff not general public could get access; less freedom/privacy over what could be read and for how long; segregation between males and females, young and old; more careful watching over users.

Service and public relations
The change from excessive conservation and protection to increased concern for public service mirrors the changing societal concept of libraries as places providing free and fair access to information for citizens. As emphasis on the use of books increased, public libraries established “open stacks” (book stacks that were freely available to patrons), allowed materials to be borrowed and used outside the library, lowered the minimum age of borrowers, and established children’s rooms. Academic libraries eventually followed this trend and established less restrictive circulation policies for students. With a greater emphasis on the needs of children, school libraries became much more common place.
A consequence of more liberal access to materials was that keeping track of the materials became much more difficult. Materials might be circulating outside the library, lost, or stolen. Individual users would be interested where a book might be and when they might expect to be able to read it. Policies had to be established for how long materials might be borrowed and procedures developed for dealing with library users who had kept materials beyond the loan period. As a result, circulation services became an important part of basic library functions and a key to good public relations. The following quotation from Mary Plummer, an American public librarian writing in 1893, quaintly sums up the shift to a service orientation that had occurred and the relative importance that circulation now played in this new model:

“The charging or loans system is part of a library’s administration by which
chiefly its communication with borrowers is carried on. The word ‘loan’ applies
to it because the books are lent, and the word charging because every library,
no matter how small, with any pretense at all at having a method, has some way
of keeping account of these loans.
The characteristic of a loan system best appreciated by the public is the speed with which it can receive and deliver books; and as a trifling annoyance, such as having to wait a few minutes for a book.
Another requisite is simplicity. The more complicated the system the greater the chance for error. The third thing to keep in mind is that the less the borrower’s part in the operation the better he likes the system. The library must ask of him only the fact that it is absolutely necessary to have to fill his order, and if there is any red tape it should be kept behind the desk.”
(Plummer, Mary W. Loan Systems. Library Journal 18 (1893): 242-246)

Not so surprisingly, little has changed since 1893. Since the first and last contact of many users is the circulation desk, public opinion of a library can be affected by the speed with which material can be borrowed and the quality of the interaction with circulation staff. Users appreciate libraries that are well organized and library circulation systems that are simple, accurate, and require little effort on their part. Fair, yet flexible application of policies regarding the circulation of materials is also an important part of public relations. Especially since circulation staff may have to deal with dissatisfied patrons with overdues, missing books, or borrower registration problems. As with other positions involving working with the public, courteous and efficient service from the staff reflect well on the library.

Circulation functions
Circulation is one of the most visible jobs in the library and involves three sections of the library:
* The circulation desk or point of charging out library materials.
* The bookstacks (closed or open) where the library materials are housed.
* A circulation records section where clerical routines, such as filing, compiling statistical reports, preparing overdues, and computing fines, are carried out.

In larger libraries a full-time professional librarian may be in charge of circulation services and will have various library technicians and clerical support staff handling the day-to-day responsibilities of circulation. The librarian would take responsibility for developing policy and procedure, dealing with user complaints, and for compiling and analyzing statistical reports. The smaller the library the less clerical and professional duties are separated and the more all responsibilities fall on the person managing the library.

While open stacks are most typical in libraries, there are some situations that require closed stacks. For example, many academic libraries have rare book rooms that contain library materials that are irreplaceable and valuable. Such collections would be closed stacks as the emphasis is on conservation and preservation. As well, some collections within a given library may not circulate or circulate on a limited basis. Most libraries have “reference collections” containing items such as dictionaries, atlases, and handbooks that are regularly consulted by librarians and the public. Such collections usually do not circulate because it is more convenient to have them readily available for quick consultation. As well, many school, academic, and even public libraries have “reserve areas”. Material housed in reserve is typically set up so that students can borrow it for a couple of hours for use in relation to a class they are taking. Placing the item in the reserve areas with a time restriction on the length of time it can be borrowed ensures that all students in the class have access to the material for their class.

Components of an ideal circulation system
Although by 1900 a general shift had occurred in the philosophy of the library as a place to conserve and preserve materials to a place that emphasized access to information and service to the public, librarians had not abandoned the need to control and regulate materials. In the quest to keep accurate records of library materials (e.g. circulating, on the shelf, missing) various types of circulation systems have been developed. Many of these systems have focused on four objectives:

• To be easy for patrons to use and library personnel to operate.
• To save borrower time, to speed up the routine of checking in and out.
• To reduce costs.
• To relieve librarians for more professional work.

As well, they have attempted to answer four basic questions:

• Who has each item?
• When are items due?
• What items does each borrower have checked out?
• How many items were checked out?

In an effort to answer these questions, systems have focused on providing library staff and patrons with information and services in five categories:

Category of Information or Service	Elements	Purpose
Patron information	Name Address Borrower identification number Category of borrower	Determines the patron's eligibility to borrow, his or her borrowing privileges and how to contact the batron
Material information	Author Title Call number Copy number	Determines which items are in the library, where they are located and how many copies there are of each item
Loan information	Date due Date returned Loan period	Enables circulation staff to quickly and efficiently charge and discharge materials and to keep current and accurate records of circulation transactions
Collection management information	Combines the elements from the patron, material and loan files	Permits the production of various reports, such as, overdue, recall and hold notices, lists of materials charged out to patrons, calculations of fines
Statistical information	Reports generated by categorizing and tallying various types of circulation transactions	Staff can determine how many items circulate, the number of borrowers, or which areas of the collection receive the most

Types of circulation systems
The history of circulation systems reflects changes in technology over the past 100 years. While early circulation systems were manual requiring library staff to record and file information by hand, later systems began to take advantage of technologies such as photography and punch cards that automated some circulation functions. The advent of the computer and more recently the microcomputer has meant that libraries could develop fully automated circulation systems.

Manual systems
While automated systems have become very common in libraries, manual and semi-automated systems are still used. Primarily these systems continue to be used in small to medium-sized libraries where the cost of investing in a computer and the necessary software may not be justifiable, the number of library users is small enough that a manual system continues to be convenient for both staff and patrons. The most common manual system in use is the Newark System and its variations. The Gaylord system and Transaction Systems are further developments in manual systems that attempt to mechanize some steps of the circulation process.

Newark System
Prior to the 1890s most libraries used a ledger system to record loans in consecutive order. In some libraries those journal entries were transferred into two ledgers: one a record of books by borrower and the other a record of borrowers of each book. Ledger systems were expensive and forced patrons to wait while information was recorded. By the turn of the century, ledger and other experimental manual systems had been almost uniformly replaced by the Newark System, developed in the Newark, New Jersey, Public Library around 1900.The Newark System involves the insertion of a circulation card with the call number, author and title in a paper pocket in each item. A date due slip is pasted on the pocket. Each patron may also be issued some kind of borrower’s identification card that gives them a library identification number.
Charging materials is a straightforward process with the following steps:
1. The patron presents the items they would like to borrow and their identification card at the circulation desk. Library staff verify that the call number on the circulation card and the pocket match.
2. The date material is due back in the library is stamped on the date due slip and on the book card.
3. The borrower’s name or identification number is entered on the circulation card. There are two variations on this step: a.) self-charge, where the borrower writes his/her own name and/or identification number on the first available blank line, b.) staff-charge, where a library staff member writes the borrower’s identification number on the circulation card.
4. The circulation card is placed in a tray for filing at the end of the day.
5. At the end of the day, all circulation cards are arranged in the desired order. The recommended order is first by date due, and then by author or numerically by call number.

Gaylord system
Efforts to speed the process of transcribing borrower information have lead to various innovations in methods of recording borrower information. The Dickman Book Charging Machine, introduced in 1927, was a hand-operated imprinter that recorded the call number, borrower registration number, and date due from embossed metal tags. In 1932, Gaylord Brothers Incorporated took this idea a step further and introduced an electric book charging machine. The machine incorporates a date imprinter that can be easily changed. Embossed library identification cards are issued to each patron. To check out material the user presents the card. Library staff take the circulation card and patron identification card and insert them into slots on the machine. The machine imprints patron information and date due information onto the circulation card. As with the Newark system, date due information is provided to the patron and circulation cards are filed at the end of the day.

Transaction systems
Another attempt at automating the process of charging and discharging material is the transaction system, first introduced in the 1930s. Although there are a number of versions, the one most often seen is photographic charging. At the point of charging, a camera is used to photograph the patron’s identification card (or other form of identification), the circulation card and a numbered and dated transaction card. The transaction card which also serves as the date due slip is inserted into the pocket and returned to the user. The photographic record of daily transactions is stored on microfilm. The beginning and finishing numeric sequences for the day are recorded. Although the microform provides a complete permanent record of all loans, it is very difficult to provide information on the status of any one item.

Limitations of manual systems
All of the above have a number of limitations:

• Limited information access points because creating duplicate records to increase access points is time consuming and costly.
• Slow and difficult processes for determining the circulation status of a given item.
• The potential for misfiled records.
• No means of easily providing users with a list of all items they have currently charged.
• No means by which library users can be informed of pending due dates.
• Provision of only the most rudimentary statistics because of the time involved in manually compiling detailed information.
• Difficulty in determining if a patron has overdues or other lost items which should prevent them from being able to borrow more material.

Automated systems
Although the previously mentioned circulation systems were a step above hand-written, chronologically arranged ledgers, their limitations still hampered the efficiency of circulation staff in completing day-to-day tasks, and severely limited the variety of services and information that staff were able to deliver. In the mid-1970s more and more libraries began using computers to handle various library functions. Circulation was an obvious first choice for automation in libraries because of the many efficiencies that could be achieved.

Online processing
Early automated systems were developed in-house and used a batch processing method of processing circulation transactions. In present day circulation systems, all processing occurs in real time. Circulation systems that are purchased from a commercial vendor are often called “turnkey systems” because they are ready to be installed and operated. They do not require any debugging because they have already been tested and can function without the assistance of a systems specialist. The disadvantage over a system designed in-house is that the library cannot typically make any modifications to the system that may be required due to unique policy or procedure within the library. Larger libraries or library systems that purchase turnkey systems usually do some custom development so that the system meets local needs. This necessitates maintaining a staff of computer programmers and systems specialists.

Storage of automated circulation records
Circulation systems can be designed in one of two ways:
1. the absence reporting method (also called transaction systems)
2. the full database method
The absence reporting method tracks items in circulation only. Records are added and deleted constantly. As books are circulated, their titles and call numbers (or other identification codes) are entered in the system, and as they are returned, their records are deleted. Not much computer disk space is required to store circulation records. Those familiar with database software, such as Microsoft Access, could create a simple circulation system using the absences reporting method. The database would not be a substitute for a card catalogue but would provide basic information on circulating items.
The full database method involves the entire collection. Typically, the full cataloguing record for every item in the library is input into the database. Instead of adding and deleting records continually, records are permanently retained in the database and coded as they are checked out or in. A whole database system requires more computer space because records for the whole collection are included.
Systems that include full cataloguing records will typically also permit users to access this information. An online public or patron access catalogue (OPAC) enables patrons to search a library’s holdings from a computer terminal and also gives information on the circulation status of an item. Circulation functions would only be one part of a larger integrated automated system.
Besides circulation and the OPAC, most integrated online systems also includes acquisitions, serials and cataloguing modules.

Basic features of automated circulation systems
Regardless of whether a system is developed in-house or purchased from a vendor, most libraries look for the following basic features:
1. Efficient and effective charge and discharge functions
2. Able to record and access pertinent user information
3. Automatic maintenance of accurate, up-to-date circulation records
4. Information detailing availability of individual items
5. Information that allows tracking of an item’s progress through its processing stages in the library
6. Efficient hold and recall functions
7. Automatic production of overdue, recall, and hold notices and bills
8. Automatic calculation of fines
9. Able to handle different loan periods, user categories, and item type categories
10. Able to handle course reserves
11. Provides a variety of statistical information
12. Flexibility in handling increases in collection size, number of users, and number of transactions.

In addition, the system might include additional features, such as various batch-processed reports, or flexibility in setting user categories and loan periods. Another desirable feature is permitting patrons to access their own circulation records so that they can review items that they have borrowed or place their own holds.

Charging and discharging with automated circulation systems
Information regarding a circulation transaction can be entered in one of two ways. The first way is to key in all information about a particular item or patron. Transaction systems typically work in this manner.

Most libraries with automated circulation systems have increased efficiency in the circulation process through the use of barcode systems. Barcodes would be similar to those used in grocery stores. Each individual item in the library receives a barcode label. The barcode number corresponds to catalogue information about the item. Similarly, each patron is assigned an identification number that corresponds to the barcode placed on their card. This creates two computer files of information:

1. Patron information filed by identification number
2. Item information filed by the barcode number on the item

Barcode readers exist in various forms including: pen or wand, CCD Scanner, laser scanners, and swipe readers.

Information on the barcode label is read by projecting a beam of light from the barcode reader. Patterns of light and dark are read and translated into a digital number which can be utilized by the computer for processing. Barcode labels have a number of advantages over book cards including:

· the labels can be affixed to all types of items (e.g. videotapes, audiocassettes)
· the labels do not have to be removed in the charging and discharging process
· the labels are not as subject to mutilation or damage as book cards and pockets
· labels do not require book pockets

There are two main types of schemes for encoding information on barcodes:

1. Codabar

This is the most frequently used scheme in libraries. The rectangle of lines and spaces translates into 14 digits which are displayed below the barcode. The first digit is used to identify whether the barcode is for a patron or for an item. Digits 2-5 identify the instituition. Digits 6-13 represent patron or item information. The final digit is an error checking digit.

2. Code 39
The rectangle of lines and spaces translates into 10 digits. The first digit is used to identify whether the barcode is for a patron or for an item. The next 2 digits identify the library. The last 7 digits are a unique code which represents either a patron or an item.
In addition to the numbers, barcodes also have small stop and start characters embedded into them. These characters inform the barcode reader that the beginning or the end of the barcode has been scanned. They also allow barcodes to be read from either direction (i.e., left to right or right to left).

Charging routines involve:
1. Running the barcode scanner over the patron’s barcode number on their identification card and over the barcode of each item that is being borrowed. This step is very important because it links the patron information file to the item information file.
2. Stamping due-date on a slip placed in book (or printing a transaction slip with items and due dates).

Discharging routines involve:
1. Running the pen or wand run across the item barcode label. This breaks the patron-item link and updates all appropriate files such as fine records, recalls, etc.
2. Removing due-date slips and reshelving the item.

Online inquiries
Most online systems will permit you to do two types of inquiries: (1) item inquiry, (2) patron inquiry. With an item inquiry, it should be possible to search the item by title, author, or barcode label and answer the following questions:
1. Is the item on file?
2. Does the item circulate?
3. Does it circulate to this patron type?
4. Is the item available at this branch?
5. How many copies are there of this item?
6. Is the item charged out? If so, what is the due date?
7. Is the item on hold? If so, what kind of hold? Which patron is next in line?
8. Is the item overdue? If so, has it been recalled?
9. Is the item missing, withdrawn, on order, in process, or claimed returned by the patron?

It should be possible to search for patron information by name or bar code label. This information should display on screen with a list of all items currently charged, fines, payments, and any messages. Due to a concern for ensuing patron privacy most circulation systems do not keep records of all items which have ever been borrowed by a patron. Reasons for patrons block should be evident (e.g. has not paid overdue fines). As well, it should be a relatively easy matter to register a new patron including name, address, and borrower privileges.

Notices and reports
The system usually also permits various types of circulation notices to be generated including: overdues, recalls and holds. As well, the system should be able to produce reports on demand by: categories of items, patrons, call numbers and items added or withdrawn; by check-out date; by number of titles and copies owned by a branch; by copies currently missing or overdue; by list of titles with cumulative circulation per copy; by total number of patrons; by number of new patrons; by number of patrons registered by status, age, geographical location; and number of transactions by patron category, age, or residential location.

Vendors of automated systems
Although various automated circulation systems would have many similar features, they will vary in appearance and performance. Many vendors have homepages on the Internet where you can find out about the features of various systems that are available.

Additional references
Cohn, John M., Kelsey, Ann L., and Fiels, Keith Michael. Planning for automation: a how-to-do-it manual for librarians. New York : Neal-Schumann Publishers, Inc., 1992.
Fouty, Kathleen G. Implementing an automated circulation system: a how-to-do-it manual. New York : Neal-Schumann Publishers, Inc., 1994.
Morris, Anne and Dyer, Hilary. Human aspects of library automation. Brookfield, VT : Gower, 1998.

Circulation systems Websites
LibraryLand: Resources for Librarians. Automation Vendors.
List of vendors of automated systems both multi-user operating systems and micro-computer based systems
http://www.rcls.org/libland/autp/dynix.htm

BarCode1: A Web of Information about Barcode.
More than you ever wanted to know about barcodes. Includes specifications for various types of barcodes.
http://www.adams1.com/pub/russadam/barcode1.htm

Appendix 1: Some sample information from automated circulation systems
Information on automated circulation modules from the Websites of the following vendors. The inclusion of this material is not an endorsement of any of these products and is merely provided to you for referral and to give you a feel for the differences that exist between various systems.

a) Follet Software Company http://www.follettsoftware.com
b) Winnibago CIRC/CAT http://www.follettsoftware.com/page/spectrum/
c) SIRS Mandarin

Introduction to libraries: Library Associations

Like libraries themselves, there are many types of library associations. Some represent all types of libraries, library personnel, friends of libraries and library trustees in a particular country. Others address the concerns and needs of a particular type of library and library personnel. It is important to become a member in a library association. While several associations of interest to library workers in Manitoba are highlighted, these would parallel similar library associations of interest to library workers in other jurisdictions. The Canadian Library Association maintains a comprehensive listing of library associations in Canada, by province and territory (plus a list of some major American library associations) in the Resources section of their Website. The specific page is: http://www.cla.ca/Content/NavigationMenu/Resources/Resources/ListofLibraryAssociations/default.htm
The National Library of Canada also maintains a listing of library associations in Canada at: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/8/8/index-e.html

Association membership benefits
There are many benefits of joining library associations. The major benefits are:
1. Networking
2. Continuing education
3. Benchmarking
4. Acquiring new skills
5. Employment opportunities

Networking
Through association membership, meet other library workers in similar types of libraries or similar employment positions. This can be invaluable when faced with a large project, such as automating the library. The experiences of others enable you to be better prepared for the pitfalls to avoid and the level of planning required for such an endeavour. Membership in associations also increases awareness of the resources available in other libraries. This knowledge can enhance ability to provide quality information services.
Another advantage of networking is the fact that there is strength in numbers. It may be impossible for one individual to lobby for changes in copyright legislation, which reflect the needs of libraries. A coalition of library associations can have a far greater impact.

Continuing education
The field of library and information science is a rapidly changing one. It is impossible to learn everything needed to perform well in a position by obtaining a Library Technician Certificate or Diploma. Skills must constantly be upgraded as new technology develops and to be aware of new information resources. The need for keeping current is now called “life-long learning” and it often difficult to accomplish this on your own. To assist their membership in this task, most associations offer continuing education programs. They may hold an annual conference, host a series of workshops, or produce a journal and/or newsletter. Library associations are now beginning to offer extensive continuing education programs at a distance, using video-conferencing and Internet delivery methods.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is comparing your own situation to an existing measurable standard or guideline with a mind to improve your situation. For example, health libraries use lists of standard medical, nursing and allied health reference works and periodical titles to measure the quality of their collections. Library associations often produce salary surveys, which can be used to determine whether your library is paying its employees average, above average or below average salaries. Library associations also produce directories of libraries, which can be used to compare staffing levels, collection sizes and variety of services with similar libraries.Sometimes, if an existing standard or guideline does not yet exist (or is too difficult or expensive to find) for a particular situation, the library might have to do some of its own original research like conduct a survey. This need not be overly difficult, time-consuming or even scientific. Sometimes comparing your own situation to two or three other similar libraries (to ensure that you would be comparing apples to apples) is all you need to determine what your next step would be.For instance, if you suspected that your overdue statistics have been too high for the past several months, you could find two or three other libraries like your own (of the same type, similar size and clientele) to see what their experience has been over a similar time period. Their statistics would become your benchmark. You could plot your results on a graph (no. of overdues on vertical axis, time on horizontal axis) which would reveal how your statistics compare with the other libraries. If your overdues are significantly higher then you might ask those libraries what they do to keep their overdues at a manageable level (they might have something you do not, such as a theft-detection system). If your overdues are lower or about the same, you may decide that it is not worth going any further. Your research would have at least given you some piece of mind that your apparently high overdues are not that high after all!

Acquiring new skills
New skills can be acquired by serving on the library association executive or on committees. For example, by maintaining association membership records, you could learn how to design a database or create customized reports. By serving on a public relations committee you would gain experience in media relations. These skills enhance your ability to compete for employment opportunities requiring skills, which you might not acquire in a present position.

Employment opportunities
Another service provided by library associations is the announcement of employment opportunities in their journals or newsletters, on their home pages on the World Wide Web or listserv over the Internet , or on a recorded telephone message. Some employers prefer listing their vacant positions through library associations, to taking out an advertisement in the local paper, as they are reaching a more targeted audience. By belonging to the association, you may find out about employment opportunities before non-members do.

Types of library associations
There are four major types of library associations:
1. National library associations
2. Provincial library associations
3. International library associations
4. Specialized library associations
Some library associations may fall into more than one category.

National library associations
National library associations represent all types of libraries, library personnel, and trustees within a particular country. The Canadian Library Association, American Library Association and Library Association (UK) are three examples. A primarily objective of this type of library association is to lobby governments on such issues as funding of libraries, copyright and censorship. National library associations may have divisions representing particular types of libraries.
For example, the Canadian Library Association has five divisions.
1. Canadian Association of College and University Libraries (CACUL)
2. Canadian Association of Public Libraries (CAPL)
3. Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services (CASLIS)
4. Canadian Library Trustee’s Association (CLTA)
5. Canadian School Libraries Association (CSLA)
In turn, divisions may have sections or chapters representing a specific geographic area or special service or type of library. For example, CACUL has the Community and Technical College Libraries (CTCL) section and CAPL has the Canadian Association of Children’s Librarians (CACL) Sect ion. CASLIS has chapters in Calgary, Edmonton, Manitoba, Ottawa, Toronto, and Atlantic Canada.For more information about CLA, visit the CLA homepage at http://www.cla.ca/

Provincial library associations
Provincial library associations represent the needs of all types of libraries at the provincial level. These associations often coordinate their lobbying efforts with the national association. The Manitoba Library Association (MLA) represents all types of libraries in Manitoba. Similar to the CLA, there are interest groups representing specialized areas and divisions representing geographical regions within the province. The MLA hosts workshops, conferences and produces an online newsletter and listserv, “MLA NEWSLIST”. To subscribe, go to the MLA Website home page and find the MLA Newslist page on the right. Ensure that the “Subscribe” box is checked off, enter your e-mail address in the specified space and click on “Submit”. You would then be added to the MLA NEWSLIST listserv. The MLA also includes job opportunities on its Website. For more information, visit the MLA Website at: http://www.mla.mb.ca

International library associations
International library associations represent the interests of libraries in more than one country. Consider the following three examples:
1. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) http://www.ifla.org/index.htm
2. International Association of School Librarianship (IASL). It maintains the School Libraries Online Web site at http://www.iasl-online.org/
3. Special Libraries Associations (SLA). SLA is also a special library association which will be discussed below.

Specialized library associations
These associations represent a specific group of library personnel, such as the Manitoba Association of Library Technicians (MALT) http://www.malt.mb.ca or Manitoba Library Trustees Association. They can also represent the interests of a specific type of library, such as the Manitoba Association of Health Information Providers http://www.chla-absc.ca/chapter/mahip/index.html, the Manitoba School Libraries Association, the Canadian Association of Law Libraries http://www.callacbd.ca or the Special Libraries Associations http://www.sla.org
MALT represents the interests of Library Technicians and library support staff throughout Manitoba. It produces a newsletter, sponsors a jobline and hosts workshops and co-sponsors conference events with other Manitoba library associations. MALT awards an annual scholar ship to a student taking the Library and Information Technology program at Red River College. MALT also produces a salary survey of library technicians throughout the province. For more information about MALT, visit http://www.malt.mb.ca
The Special Libraries Association has members from many different countries. It has divisions representing specific types of libraries or subject areas, and chapters representing specific geographic areas. The chapter of most interest to special library personnel in Manitoba is the Western Canadian Chapter (SLA/WCC). SLA now produces Information Outlook, which combines the features of its two former publications, Specialist and Special Libraries. The SLA’s homepage can be visited at http://www.sla.org. SLA/WCC’s homepage is at the following address http://units.sla.org/chapter/cwcn/index.shtml

Introduction to libraries: Types of library workers

Classifications of library personnel
To most people, anyone who works in a library is a librarian. However, libraries have different levels of employees. Although the titles may vary from library to library, there are primarily four classifications of library personnel.
1. Librarian / Teacher Librarian
2. Library Technician
3. Library Assistant
4. Library Clerk

Educational qualifications
The chart below describes the minimum educational qualifications for each level.

Position	Minimum level of education required
Librarian	Master’s Degree in Library Science (MLS) or Bachelor’s Degree in Library Science (BLS) (no longer granted) from an American Library Association (ALA) accredited program.
Teacher-Librarian	Bachelor’s Degree in Education plus additional specialized courses in school libraries. Must also possess a valid teacher’s certificate. Some teacher librarians also have an MLS.
Library Technician	Two year diploma or one year certificate (no longer offered) from community college or technical institute. Lakehead University’s Department of Library and Information Studies program offer s a Bachelor’s Degree in a subject area with a Minor in Information Studies. However, Lakehead’s diploma in Library and Information Studies is being phased out (According to their Website “This program will continue only until those students previously registered have completed the program of study”).
Library Assistant	High school diploma. Some libraries may prefer or require a Library Technician Diploma or Certificate or Bachelor’s Degree in any discipline.
Library Clerk	Often no level of education required. Some libraries may prefer a high school diploma.

Librarians may also possess a Ph.D. and a second master’s degree in another field (such as a Masters of Business Administration). Library technicians and library assistants offer have undergraduate degrees. Some may even have a graduate degree.
Most university libraries have library assistants and will often prefer hiring individuals who have a bachelor’s degree, especially if it is in the same discipline (e.g. arts or sciences) in which that library specializes. The reason for this is the belief that employees with degrees will better understand the mission of a university library and will learn specialized library skills on the job. As more graduates of library technician programs in Canada have also completed several years of university or a degree, university libraries hire library technicians more frequently. The position title, however, has not changed.
There is no level of education required to be a library clerk because the duties tend to be quite basic (e.g. shelving, processing, etc.) and can be readily learned on the job. Some libraries hire high school students on a part-time basis to shelve materials or work at circulation.

Library technician training in Canada
Red River College was the first in Canada to have a Library Technician Program (1962). As early as 1966, the Canadian Library Association studied the training requirements of this new level of library staff. The first edition of their guidelines was published in 1981. Library technician training across Canada follows the second edition of the Canadian Library Association’s Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians (also known as the CLA Guidelines), published in 1993.
Canadian Library Association Task Force on the Professional Review Process for Library Technicians in Canada, Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians, 2nd ed. (Ottawa: Canadian Library Association, 1991)

Types of duties
The types of duties each staff level performs varies from library to library. There is, however, a general consensus that when more than one level of library staff exists, there is a breakdown in duties.For more information on the duties performed by different levels of library staff, refer to:
1. CLA’s Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians, 1991 edition.
2. Manitoba Association of Library Technicians brochure, “Why Hire a Library Technician?”
3. Manitoba Library Association document “Library Careers in Manitoba” http://mla.mb.ca/library-jobs-and-careers

Duties of professional librarians and teacher–librarians
Professional librarians usually manage a library department or entire library. As managers, they develop policies and ensure that the policies are implemented consistently and appropriately. Librarians report directly to library boards, senior management within a company or to academic administrators. In some organizations, in-depth research or requests for information in highly specialized subject areas are only performed at the professional librarian level.
Teacher-librarians do much more than simply manage school libraries. As teachers first, teacher-librarians lead in the implementation of resource-based learning at the school level. In collaboration with classroom teachers, teacher-librarians integrate information literacy skills throughout the curriculum. Teacher-librarians assist other teachers with curriculum development and provide advice regarding appropriate resources to support existing curriculum. Like professional librarians, teacher-librarians design and implement such library policies as collection development. Usually reporting to school principals, teacher-librarians are also delegated such front-line supervisory tasks as managing school library budgets and staff.

Duties of library technicians
Library technicians support professional librarians and teacher-librarians and perform duties requiring specialized library training, such as cataloguing, bibliographic verification, answering basic reference questions, or instructing library patrons in the use of the OPAC, CD-ROM resources, or library equipment, such as microfiche readers. Library technicians often supervise other staff members, including library technicians or library clerks. Library technicians may sometimes also manage small (often one-person) libraries or departments within larger libraries, under the supervision of professional librarians.

Duties of library assistants
Library assistants also support professional librarians or teacher-librarians. The only major difference between them and library technicians is that they do not necessarily possess a certificate or diploma, but rather receive “on-the-job” training. As they gain more specialized training and experience, they can move into supervisory positions.

Duties of library clerks
Library clerks perform duties that require little specialized training. Such duties include shelving, processing and checking out or discharging library materials.

Staffing levels in small libraries
In small or one-person libraries, there may be professional librarians shelving library materials, or library technicians reporting to senior level administration within a company. The emphasis is on providing quality library service within existing staffing levels rather than assigning specific duties to specific positions.

Effect on library automation on staffing levels
Before computers were available, much of library work was labour intensive and required special skills. Only libraries with few staff allowed library technicians, assistants and clerks to perform non-clerical tasks. Computer technology streamlined many repetitive tasks, such as checking out and discharging materials, and most importantly, allowed libraries to easily share bibliographic records. No longer was it necessary to have professional staff interpreting complex cataloguing rules if cataloguing copy was available from another library or a commercial source. Well-trained library technicians or library assistants were able to search for bibliographic records and to make minor modifications to reflect the local library’s cataloguing practices and holdings.

Effect of fiscal restraint on staffing levels
In recent years, financial pressures have necessitated that library administrators find more economical methods of providing library services. This often results in re-evaluating which duties should be performed at the professional level and which should not. This is not only a trend in libraries. Throughout society organizational structures are flattening, often resulting reductions in mid-management level positions. To compensate the loss of mid-management, team building is frequently emphasized in organizations. Although assignment of new duties can lead to more challenging and rewarding work for library technicians, it is often accompanied by re-deployment of staff, rather than large salary increments or increased managerial responsibilities. As a result, library workers can experience burn-out and a sense of frustration.

Alternative careers
Many library workers are seeking out alternative careers. This began to take off in the 1980s when publicly funded libraries (i.e. academic, public and school libraries) began to experience significant budget cutbacks. Ironically, this occurred in the midst of a rising deluge of information which more and more people found increasingly difficult to access and manage. Although the need for information professionals has increased by leaps and bounds, the demand for traditional library workers has remained constant or it has even fallen. The problem is that many do not recognize that library workers are precisely people who are in the best position to help them wade through information and develop their own information literacy skills.
For this reason, library workers are increasingly taking their futures into their own hands, marketing their valuable skills and creating their own opportunities. Thus, alternative careers is still a growing trend today. Librarians and library technicians have obtained positions as information consultants, webmasters, sales representatives for publishing firms, to name a few.
For more information on this entrepreneurial spirit among library workers and the ways library workers are finding∕creating their own employment, see the article “The New Information Pros” by Lisa Peryman from the November 1997 issue of Quill & Quire. It discusses skills library workers possess to enable them to work in other areas. Françoise Hébert’s article “Looking for work” accompanies Lisa Peryman’s article. It offers guidelines to assist library workers use their skills as they embark on the adventure of their alternative careers. The American Library Association’s Guide to Employment Sources in the Library and Information Professions (2001) includes a section, “using information skills in non-library settings”. The Website for this resource is at: http://www.ala.org/ala/educationcareers/employment/resources/employmentguide05.cfm
Finally, the Toronto Chapter of the Special Libraries Association maintains a Webpage on “Alternative Careers and Personal Development” at: http://units.sla.org/toronto/resources/alternativejobs.asp

Employment outlook
The employment outlook for library workers overall is expected to be about “average” through 2010. For an explanation as to what this means and a detailed analysis of the Canadian market for library workers consult Job futures 2000, outlooks by occupations at http://www.jobfutures.ca/en/home.shtml produced by Human Resources Development Canada. Enter “library” as the search term and get links to most of the major types of library workers. Library workers are included under National Occupational Code no. 521 “Technical Occupations in Libraries…”
For a similar analysis of the U.S. market, consult the Occupational outlook handbook (2002-03 edition) at http://stats.bls.gov/oco published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Labor. Enter “library” as the search term and get links to most of the major library staffing levels, including library technicians.

Contact list
For more information on library workers, library science and library technology programs, library careers and employment in libraries, contact the following sources of information:

Canadian Library Association
328 Frank Street
Ottawa, Ontario K2P 0X8
Phone: (613) 232 9625
Web site: http://www.cla.ca

Manitoba Association of Library Technicians
Box 1872
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 3R1
Phone: (204) 885-7581 (Job Bank)
Website: http://www.malt.mb.ca

Manitoba Association of Health Information Providers
Box 232, Postal Station C
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3M 3S7
Website: http://www.chla-absc.ca/chapter/mahip/index.html

Manitoba Library Association
606 100 Arthur Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 1H3
Phone: (204) 943-4567
Fax: (204) 942-1555
Website: http://www.mla.mb.ca

Manitoba School Library Association
c/o Manitoba Teacher’s Society
191 Harcourt Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J 3H2
Phone: (204) 888-7961
http://home.merlin.mb.ca/~msla

Introduction to libraries: Types of libraries

There are four major categories of libraries:

1. Academic libraries
2. Public libraries
3. School libraries
4. Special libraries

Academic libraries
Academic libraries are those in an institution providing secondary education. In Canada, there are community colleges, universities and technical institutes. The mission of an academic library is to support the parent institution in delivering its programs. University libraries are geared toward general studies at the undergraduate and graduate level. Community colleges and technical institute libraries are aimed at programs, which teach practical skills. In Manitoba, there are five university library systems: Brandon University, Canadian Mennonite University, Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface, the University of Manitoba and the University of Winnipeg. There are three community college libraries: Assiniboine Community College in Brandon, University College of the North in The Pas, and Red River College in Winnipeg. There are several independent college libraries in Manitoba, including Concord College in Winnipeg, Providence College in Otterburne, and the William and Catherine Booth College in Winnipeg. Academic libraries are funded by government grants to post-secondary institutes as well as tuition fees paid by students. Note that the Faculty Library Advisory Committee are linked to the department libraries, but that the Head Librarians do not report directly to these committees. The committees merely provide advice regarding their department or faculty's information needs and the types of services and collections they require.
Another difference between university libraries and community college or technical institute libraries in Canada is the breadth of materials held in their collections. University libraries contain materials in many different languages and also house theses and dissertations written by graduates of the university. For example, the University of Manitoba has an Icelandic collection as well as a Slavic collection. Most works in collections in libraries at community colleges or technical institutes are in the English language and written at the undergraduate level. However, as more community colleges and technical institutes are offering advance diploma programmes and courses towards university degrees, this difference may not be as noticeable.

Standards
The Association of College and Research Libraries (a division of the American Library Association) has established standards for college and university libraries. The latest edition of the standard for university libraries is 2005. "Standards for University Libraries: Evaluation and Performance," College and Research Libraries News 50 (September 1989) Also available over the Internet, http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/ulsundergraduate.cfm The latest edition of the standard for college libraries is 2004. http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/standardslibraries.cfm These standards make recommendations for the appropriate size of a basic collection, the number of volumes per full-time faculty member and full time undergraduate and the number of volumes for each field taught at the masters and doctoral levels. They also recommend minimum and excellent staffing levels within libraries. Formulas are provided for calculating the size of facility required to house all the materials and to provide appropriate study space and service.

Objectives
There are four major objectives of academic libraries.
1. To educate
2. To provide research resouces
3. To provide information
4. To preserve materials

Basic services
To meet these objectives, academic libraries have the following basic information services.
1. Bibliographic instruction
2. Electronic reference resources
3. Government publications
4. Document delivery
5. Reserve readings
6. Photocopiers

Bibliographic instruction (BI)
To meet the objective of educating students, academic libraries offer bibliographic instruction services. In simplest terms, BI is the teaching individuals how to use library resources. It may be given at the time a patron approaches the information desk (Point of Use), library orientation or tours, or it may be seminars or courses (Formal Instruction). University and college libraries offer a wide variety of formal seminars and courses in using library resources, from finding materials using the OPAC, highlighting relevant resources in a specific subject area, searching specialized CD-ROM periodical indexes, to effectively searching the Internet. These courses are now being offered over the Internet, as well as in a classroom environment. Creating handouts, which explain the physical layout of the library and producing pathfinders, which list sources of information in a specific field of study, are another form of bibliographic instruction. Academic librarians are finding that they now spend more time instructing than providing traditional reference service. They believe the reason for this is the increasing complexity in locating information via electronic means. Bibliographic instruction is now seen as providing students with information literacy skills.

Electronic reference resources
As in all other aspects of life, advances in computer technology have dramatically altered the way research is done. No longer is it merely necessary for the academic library to subscribe to major periodical indexes, subject specialized encyclopaedias and hand books and major directories. Academic libraries must now decide upon the best format of providing these resources. Are the print indexes still required as well as electronic versions? Should the library purchase the indexes on CD-ROM and make them available over the network, or should it subscribe to the same resources over the Internet? Most CD-ROM publishers have different subscription prices for networked versions, depending on the number of individuals who are allowed access at a time. The library then requires sophisticated network hardware to ensure that only authorized users access the networked CD-ROMs and to keep track of how many of these users are accessing a single CD-ROM public at any point in time.
Most academic libraies have noted that requests for on-line searches on remote databases have declined dramatically since the advent of CD-ROM technology. On-line search services are still offered, but they are usually for resources unavailable on CD-ROM, or when individiuals need extremely current information.

Government publications
Academic libraries have large collections of government publications to support the research and teaching of the parent institution. Rarely are these integrated into the main collection, but are housed separately and arranged alphabetically by the name of the jurisdiction, which published the material.

Document delivery
Document delivery is a rapidly growing service in academic libraries. The remarkable expansion of knowledge (over 40,000 scientific jourrnals publish over one million articles per year) and the ease of access to this literature through remote databases and CD-ROM indexes, has resulted in alerting library users to many excellent resources, which are unavailable in their local university or college library. At the same time, libraries are experiencing budget cuts and are forced to cancel many periodical subscriptions. To ensure that researchers continue to have access to resources, libraries have had to place more emphasis on document delivery. This is known as the just-in-time method of collection development as opposed to the traditional just in case (i.e. having items on the shelf in the expectation that students and faculty will use them) method. Academic libraries readily embraced facisimile transmission and optical scanning technologies to reduce the time required to acquire materials from other libraries.

Reserve readings
Reserve readings are required readings for courses. They may be books, periodical articles, reports, or software packages. Because all students in a particular course will be requesting the same material, academic libraries place the material "on reserve". There is usually a separate room or shelving area at the circulation desk for these items. The items are on short-term loan, often one hour, two hours, twenty-four hour or two or three day loan. Fines are levied for overdue materials, to encourage their prompt return. In the days before photocopiers (yes, they did exist!) academic libraries had large reading rooms with study carrels for students to read reserve materials. Now most academic libraries provide numerous photocopier in reserve reading areas for students to make copies of the materials. It is predicted that in the near future academic libraries will obtain copyright clearance to place reserve readings on the Internet for students to download a single copy onto their own computer.

Photocopiers
Academic libraries, as mentioned above, provide many photocopirs for student and faculty use. Larger libraries sell encoded plastic cards for particular amounts of money. For example, if each copy costs 10 cents, an individual can purchase a card encoded with $10.00, which would allow him or her to make 100 copies. Photocopiers take up much staff time in clearing paper jams, adding paper or toner, phoning for repairs and in instruction on use.

Preservation
To meet the research needs of the parent institution, academic libraries must ensure that library materials do not deterioate to the point they are unable to be used. Modern book publishers used lower quality paper and as a consequence, some books are literally turning to dust on the shelves. However, due to rising demand from academic libraries, more academic book publishers are using acid-free materials. Academic libraries have actively pursued preservation programs to ensure valuable resources are not lost. Local newspapers are microfilmed, and libraries are exploring the feasibility of scanning documents into a digital format and storing them on CD-ROM or making them available over the World Wide Web.

Issues and trends in academic libraries
Academic libraries face many challenges. Universities and colleges introduce new fields of study, which require additional funds to support and, in some instances, require materials from non-Western countries, which are expensive and difficult to locate. Colleges and technicial institutes have experienced draamatic increases in both student enrolment and the number of programs offered. Although enrolment in universities have declined, more students are pursuing part-time and distance educattion studies. Distance education has different service requirements to on-campus studies.
Large academic libraries have constantly faced the issue of centralization vs. decentralization. Library users want conveniently located resources, which results in the establishment of branch libraries and sometimes undergraduate libraries. Branch libraries or undergraduate libraries require duplication of major reference resources and in times of fiscal restraint, this is seen as inappropriate expenditure of limited resources. In Canada, both the University of Toronto and University of British Columbia had closed their undergraduate libraries by 2002.
The increasing availability of information resources in a variety of formats force academic libraries to determine which resources to acquire in the most effective format and which resources to provide by document delivery.

Public libraries
Public libraries are the most familiar type of library to the general public. Their mission is to serve the informational and recreational needs of the community. Funding for public libraries is provided through municipal taxes and special government grants. In Manitoba, public libraries may be municipal or regional. Municipal public libraries are funded and supported by one municipality. Regional public libraries are funded and supported by more than one municipality. The establishment of public libraries and the responsibility of public library boards in Manitoba are governed by the Public Libraries Act.
The provincial Governor in Council has the authority to appoint a Public Library Advisory board to advise and make recommendations concerning all aspects of public libraries. In 1993, the Manitoba Public Library Advisory Board issued a strategic plan entitled, Quality and Access: The Future of Public Libraries in Manitoba. Manitoba Public Library Advisory Board. Quality and Access: The Future of Public Libraries in Manitoba: a Strategic Plan for Public Library Development, (Winnipeg: Public Library Advisory Board, 1993). The Governor in Council may also establish rules, regulations and orders, which have the force of law over the governance of public libraries in Manitoba.
Library boards must meet at least six times each year and these meetings must be held every two months. Municipalities appoint library board members. One board member must also be a member of the local municipal council. Library boards have responsibility for the operation and management of the public library. They submit an annual report to the minister in charge of the Public Library Act. Libray boards submit budgets to the municipal council and exclusively control and keep accounts of revenues and expenditures of the library. The municipal auditor audits these accounts annually. Library boards also have the responsibility of appointing, dismissing, suspending library staff and determing rules for conducts of library staff and establishing salaries.
Note that the Winnipeg Public Library does not follow this model. The library is a department of the Winnipeg municipal government and the chief librarian reports to a member of the Board of Commissioners.

Public library standards
In 1967, the Public Library Association, a division of the American Library Association, published Minimum Standards for Public Library Systems (Public Library Association, Minimum Standards for Public Library Systems, 1966 (Chicago: ALA, 1967). It promoted the concept that public libraries should attempt to serve the needs of the entire community, not just regular library users. It also encouraged the development of library systems serving regions of at least 150,000 people. There would be branch libraries at the local level supported by headquarter libraries. This standard emphasized quality of service rather than quantity of resources, but still included quantitative recommendations such as the amount of money per capita which should be spent on library services.
In 1980 the Public Library Association published A Planning Process for Public Libraries (Vernon Palmour, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, (ALA, 1980)) and in 1987 it published Planning and Role-Setting for Public Libraries (Charles R. McClure, et al., Planning and Role-Setting for Public Libraries: a Manual of Options and Procedures, (ALA, 1987)). These two documents stressed the need for each library to establish two to three roles to serve its community, to develop long-range plans with goals and objectives to fulfill these roles. The 1987 itemized eight potential roles (Ibid, Chapter 4). These included:
1. Comunity activities centre (e.g. meeting space)
2. Community information centre (e.g. bulletin board)
3. Formal education support centre (e.g. adult literacy classes, tours for school groups, etc.)
4. Independent learning centre (e.g. quiet area with tables, carrels conducive to study)
5. Popular materials Library (e.g. access to bestselling novels)
6. Preschooler's door to learning
7. Reference library (e.g. access to dictionaries, enhcyclopedias, atlases, almanacs, etc.)
8. Research Centre (e.g. access to Internet, photocopoiers, etc.)
In 1987, the Public Library Association also produced Output Measures for Public Libraries: A Manual for Standardized Procedures (Nancy Van Horn, et al., Output Measures for Public Libraries: A Manual for Standardized Procedures. 2nd ed., (Chicago: ALA, 1987)). This was a handbook for measuring library uses and services. These measurements could be collected at the national and state level. Local library systems could then compare their own measures against the state and national statistics.

Objectives
Public libraries exist to provide their communities' residents with services and materials to meet their informational and recreational needs. Depending on which roles each library chooses to fill, the objective can vary from library to library. For example, the new Vancouver Public Library building houses a massive collection on seven different levels. It has many microcomputer terminals for accessing the Internet, searching subject specialized CD-ROMs, as well as terminals for searching the OPAC.
Each level is devoted to either particular service or subject areas. The children's section is on the lower level and the different subject areas on the upper levels. The upper levels have two information desks staffed with reference librarians specializing in a particular field. For example, on one level there is an information desk for science and technology related information inquiries and another for business and economics. Clearly, the Vancouver Public Library has chosen to fulfill the role of research centre.

Basic Services
Regardless of which roles a particular library chooses to fulfill, public libraries generally categorize their services by age groups and geographic location.
Common categories of services are:
1. Children's services
2. Young adult services
3. Adult services
4. Information services
5. Outreach services

Children's services
Public libraries generally have a separate area within their facilities for the children's collection and services. Children's collections include both fiction and non-fiction materials aimed at the pre-school to twelve-year olds. CD-ROM resources are also popular with young children. Typical programs for children include storytelling, puppet shows, and summer reading programs. Some public libraries have developed intergenerational programs where young adults or seniors read to children.

Young adult services
It can sometimes be challenging providing services to young adults (ages twelve through seventeen). This age group may use the library more for meeting others their own age than for the collection and services. However, many public libraries have successful young adult programs by offering programs such as babysitting clinics, crafts and booktalks. Public libraries also provide multiple copoies of paperback young adult novels, covering themes of interest to this age group.

Adult services
Adult services may include programs such as retirement planning seminars, book discussion groups, and cooking classes. Libraries serving a multicultural community may have programs in other languages than two official languages or make meeting rooms available for ethnic organizations to hold meetings or present lectures.
Public libraries have diverse collecftions for adults including large print and talking books for the visualy impaired and audiovisual materials, including how-to videos or popular TV series or movies on videos and audio CD-ROMs for loan. Many public libraries place a great emphasis on popular fiction collectons, which are often arranged on the shelves by genre, e.g. mystery, romance, science fiction and westerns. In multicultural communities, public librariesmay also collect materials in different languages and provide English as a second language (ESL) resources.

Information services
Public libraries offer the typical information services. They have reference collections with major directories, encyclopedias and other resources. Depending on the community, a public library might emphasize a particular subject area, such as business resources on genealogical or local history resources. Although not as prevalent as in academic libraries, public libraries provide bibliographic instruction. Public libraries also serve as a referral service to other resources, such as social service, health, and governmental agencies. They will often have these agencies' brochures available or list them in a directory or on a database. Another major information information service is reader's advisory. Many library patrons use the public library as a source of recreational reading and request books, which are similar to their favourite authors.

Outreach services
These services include bookmobiles, books-by mail, shut-in services where books are delivered to seniors' or persons with disabilities' homes. Lists of available materials are sent to individuals who are unable to visit the library. The individual submits his or her choice of titles and the materials are either mailed or delivered. Some public libraries create profiles for each individuals. Such profiles list the types of materials those individuals would like or dislike so that their public library would then ship appropriate titles, as they become available.

Issues and trends in the public library
Like academic libraries, public libraries are faced with declining budgets and increasing availability of reasources in a wide variety of formats. Public libraries must complete with other services providing recreational and informational activities. When a local video store hahs over fifty copies of the latest releases available for a low rental fee, why would a patron wish to be placed on a lengthy waiting list for the same item?
The Internet has had both a positive and negative impact on public libraries. For families who are unable to afford a home computer, the public library can provide access to an important information resource. For individuals who have access to the Internet at home, there may be a misperception that 'everything is available on the Internet', and they no longer use the public library as a result.
A disturbing trend in today's society is the growing number of homeless people and cutbacks in social services providing assistance to these individuals. The public library is often perceived as a refuge from the cold climate and a place for safe interactioin with others. This in itself poses no problems. Unfortunately, some individuals' behaviours are disrepective to other library patrons and to library staff. Public libraries have found it necessary to establish procedures to ensure that the disruptive behaviour is curtailed in a respectful, yet effective manner.

Public Library Services (Manitoba)
While this section focuses on the administration and delivery of rural and northern public library services in one province (Manitoba), it attempts to provide learners outside Manitoba with an instructive example by which they may compare and contrast the delivery of public library services in their own jurisdiction.
In its strategic plan, the Manitoba Public Library Advisory Board indicated that approximately 20% of Manitoba's population have no access to a library in their own community. Public Library Services (PLS), within the Manitoba Culture, Heritage, Tourism and Sports Department, provides services to public libraries throughout the entire province of Manitoba and to areas which have no public library.
PLS is located in Brandon and administers the Public Library Act as well as providing the following services:
1. Cataloguing for rural public libraries
2. Maintaining a union catalogue of Manitoba public library holdings
3. Document delivery services
4. Consultation services to library boards and library staff
5. Continuing education through workshops and an annual conference
6. Publications, such as a newsletter, Directory of Libraries in Manitoba and Manitoba Public Library Statistics
7. Collection support to established libraries, including audio-visual materials and French and multilingual materials
8. Services to areas without local libraries, including books by mail and a travelling library
Visit the PLS Website at: http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/pls/index.html

Public Library Services Activity
1. Visit the National Library of Canada list of Public Library Websites at http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/gateway/s22-200-e.html and select one or more of the sites listed below.
2. Try to answer the following:
Group 1: Calgary Public Library
Group 2: Ottawa Public Library
Group 3: Parry Sound Public Library
Group 4: Regina Public Library
Group 5: The Pas Public Library
Group 6: Vancouver Public Library (Central Branch)
Group 7: Wheatland Public Library and Learn Centre
Group 8: Winnipeg Public Library
3. Which of the eight potential roles do you think this library is trying to fulfill?
4. Is the Library Catalogue available over the World Wide Web?
5. Does the Web Site entice you to use the library? Why or why not?

School libraries
School libraries support the curriculum and programs of schools from kindergarten through grade twelve. In the United States and Canada, formal libraries were slow to develop in schools, as the majority of teaching was done from textbooks. There were often classroom resource materials, but few schools had a central library until the 1950s. As schools made use of a variety of educational resources in different formats, school libraries became known as media centres in some school divisions. Many schools provide services to not only the teachers and students, but also to school administrators and parents.
Teacher-librarians administer large school libraries. In some school divisions, there may be only one teacher-librarian who oversees the school library program for the entire division and the day to day operations of the individual school libraries are managed by library technicians.

Standards
Various standards for school libraries have existed since the 1920s. The American Library Association, the American Association of School Librarians and the Association of Educational Communications Technology created standards in 1945, 1960, 1969 and 1988. The latest standard is Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning (AASL/AECT, Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning, (Chicago: ALA, 1998)). This publication encourages that the school library media programs be integrated into the school curriculum.
In Manitoba, standards for school libraries are established by the Department of Manitoba Education, Training and Youth, Instructional Resources Unit (IRU). For access to existing standards for school libraries, visit the Department's Instructional Resources Library Publications Webpage: http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/iru/library_publications/index.html See especially the list of links to "IRU Guideline and Policy Documents" at the left of the Webpage given above.
For access to school library policies and documents from all across Canada, see the Web site to the "School Library Information Portal (SLiP): the Canadian connection to school library documents" at http://www.clatoolbox.ca/slip/

Objectives
In the School Library Policy Statement of Manitoba Education, Training and Youth, Instructional Resources Branch (Manitoba Education, Training and Youth School Library Policy Statement, (Winnipeg: Manitoba Education and Training, 1993), 5, states that a school library is one administered by a teacher-librarian and its objectives are:
1. To encourage the use of various learning resources
2. To assist in the implementation of the school curriculum
3. To motivate students to use materials and programs
4. To implement new technologies and programs
It also states that school library programs should be integrated with the school's instructional program to support resource-based learning, a model, which makes use of a wide range of print, non-print and human resources.

Basic services
School libraries offer similar services to public and academic libraries. Storytelling is part of an elementary school library program. Booktalking is part of a middle or high school library program. A major role of the school library is to educate students in research skills and in the use of library resources. The following services are highlighted:
1. Instruction in information literacy skills
2. Information services
3. Reserve readings
4. Curriculum support and development
5. Computer laboratory

Information literacy skills instruction
These skills include analyzing the best resources to use when beginning to search for a topic, finding the most up-to-date materials, locating relevant materials, and using a variety of media formats. It has been recognized that student who develop good information literacy skills in elementary school have a better chance of succeeding in future studies.
Students and teachers are taught how to use the card catalogue or OPAC. Students are also informed how the Dewey Decimal Classification System organizes materials on the shelves. In conjuction with the school curriculum, school library staff informs students and staff about resources available on specific units. For example, for a unit on dinosaurs, the library staff would alert the teacher of all the available resources and coordinate a library activity related to that topic. The teacher might give an assignment, which requires library staff assistance in instructing students on the use of a CD-ROM product specifically about dinosaurs, or a CD-ROM or print encyclopedia, or how to search the Internet. Sometimes agreements are made between schools to stagger the teaching of specific units, to allow school libraries to request additional materials from each other.

Information services
School libraries provide traditional information services to teachers and students. This includes quick reference and in-depth research. To provide this service, the school library staff makes use of both materials available within the library, or of outside community resources. In some communities, there is a close relationship between the school and public libraries, where programs are coordinated and resources shared. School libraries are more frequently relying on electronic resources to deliver information sources to their clientele. A frequent remark made by school library staff members that it is nearly impossible to encourage students to use the print version of an encyclopedia, when an CD-ROM version is available.

Reserve readings
As in academic libraries, school libraries place items required for projects on reserve to be either used only in the library or on a short-term loan. This allows many students access to limited resources on a specific topic.

Curriculum support and development
The school library staff provides support for the curriculum, by alerting teachers to new resources and giving guidance on appropriate resources for different grade levels. It also supports the curriculum by acquiring new materials in a variety of formats and discarding materials which are outdated. Teacher-librarians assist teachers in developing and implementing learning activities using various library media resources.

Computer laboratory
A recent development in school libraries is the placement of a computer laboratory next to or within the library facility. Library staff is expected to provide assistance to students using the computer equipment and software and to troubleshoot when technical problems arise. As so much of library resources are now electronic, this is a natural progression of services within a school media program. Many school libraries see this development as enhancing their visibility and importance within the school.

Issues and trends in school libraries
School libraries have the same dilemma as other libraries of how to acquire resources in a variety of media formats with limited funds. There is tremendous public pressure to acquire computer technology in schools, often to the detriment of providing equally important print and audiovisual resources.
Financial restraint has resulted in a reduction in the number of teacher-librarians within schools. Although library technicians and clerks are qualified to run the day to day operations of the library, they are not qualified teachers. Consequently, they may find themselves in awkward situations being asked to undertake duties which require specialized teacher training.
Many schools have heritage language programs, or are French immersion schools. This requires the school library to acquire materials in English and French as well as other languages. Some of these materials may be expensive or less easily acquired and lack cataloguing copy.

School libraries activity
Visit Peter Milbury's Network of School Librarian Web Pages at: http://school-libraries.net and/or School Libraries on the Web at: http://www.sldirectory.com/
Choose at least four school sites where the school library has its own page and respond to the following questions:
1. Does the library's page tell you what the library does?
2. Does the library's page make you want to go to the library?
3. For whom do you think the page is written (e.g. students, teachers, parents, etc.)?
4. Did the library's page make you think that as a parent you would want your child to attend that school?

Special libraries
Special libraries have been defined by those which are not academic, public or school libraries. In the Special Libraries Association Bylaws, Article II: Membership, special libraries are defined as:
(a) A library or information center maintained by an individual, corporation, association, government agency, or any other group; or
(b) A specialized departmental collection within a library.
(Special Libraries Association, Bylaws, (Washington, DC.: Special Libraries Association, October 1995)
What distinguishes special libraries is the subject specialization of their collections and services, which are primarily designed to further the objectives of the parent organization. Services are tailored to the parent organization's needs and even to the individual patron's needs. In corporations, special libraries must be seen as contributing to the company's patrons. Many special libraries' collections have more periodicals than books. Others may have one format only, such as photos, slides or maps.
The reporting structure of special libraries vary greatly. The library may serve an individual department or may serve the entire organization. Some special libraries are placed within the administrative services division, others within a research and development division. What is a common trait of special libraries, is that the size of special libraries, is that the size of staff is usually small. Many special libraries are one-person libraries or have up to five staff members.

Standards
In 1996, the Special Libraries Association produced a document entitled Comptencies for Special Librarians of the 21st Century (Joanne Marshall, Comptencies for Special Librarians of the 21st Century, (Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association, 1996) http://www.sla.org/content/learn/comp2003/97comp.cfm It outlines both the professional and personal comptencies special librarians must have to effectively manage special libraries. Some of these comptencies are:
Professional
1. Expert knowlegde of and the ability to evaluate information resources
2. Specialized subject knowledge appropriate to the parent organization's business
3. Ability to assess information needs and to create and market value-added information services
4. Ability to use appropriate information technology to acquire, organize and distribute information
Personal
1. Commitment to service excellence
2. Effective communication skills
3. Team player
4. Commitment to lifelong learning
The Canadian Health Libraries Association has also produced standards for health libraries, which are linked to the accrediation process within hospitals.

Objectives
The objective of a special library is to provide information and resources, which allow the parent organization to achieve its mission and goals. Special libraries staff must fit within the corporate culture of the parent organization, if they are to be seen as an essential service. Library staff must have a second knowledge of the parent organization's business and of the industry or field of the parent organization. Special libraries acquire materials in a variety of formats, but place great emphasis on the 'just-in-time' rather than the 'just in case' collection development model. Special librarians are often required to analyze and synthesize the information they acquire to present to their clientele with a manageable relevant material rather than a large number of sources which the patron must sort through.

Basic services
Special libraries offer many of the same basic services as academic libraries, but the emphasis may differ. With the advances in computer technology, many corporations have provided workstations to the majority of staff members and excpect them to conduct their own searches for information. Special librarians are now offering more bibliographic instruction or instruction in information literacy skills to assist staff members in searching specialized CD-ROM resources and to improve their skills in using the Internet.
Some major and unique services in special libraries are:
1. Current awareness services
2. Information services
3. Translations
4. Abstracting and indexing
5. Archives and records management

Current awareness services
Special libraries have traditionally assisted their clients in keeping abreast of news and developments in their fields. Recent issues of journals or the tables of contents of recent issues are routed to patrons. Each time an online database or CD-ROM version of a periodical index is updated, a library staff member performs a customized search to retrieve references to the latest articles on a particular topic. Special libraries use commercial services, such as CARL UnCover to hae recent articles faxed directly to the person's department or office.

Information services
In many ways, information services in a special library are identical to those in other libraries. However, the special librarian must have sound knowledge of resources in a specialized subject area. Information requests in special libraries may be so specific that little published information is available, requirng the special librarian to make considerable use of personal networks such as telephone calls or e-mails to outside specialists in the field. The need for creativity in finding relevant information makes reference work in special libraries both challenging and rewarding.

Translations
In certain fields, many excellent sources of information are not published in English. Special libraries are often requested to locate translations for these materials. Before an original translation is requested, library staff search for existing translations and request them through a document delivery service. In Canada, the Canada Institute for the Scientific and Technical Information (CISTI) is an excellent source for finding translations of scientific articles and reports.

Abstracting and indexing
Many special libraries have items in their collections which are not covered by major commercial indexes. They may be small newsletters, in-house publications or technical reports. To provide better access to these items, library staff will index them. Neither is it unusual for special librarians to produce special newsletters listing interesting new articles in the literature, complete with abstracts describing their content.

Archives and records management
In the 1980s, many special librarians took on the additional role of managing the companies' archives and records management departments. It was viewed as a natural fit for the corporate library as these services dealt with internal information. Archival materials and records are treated differently than library materials. Library staff may require further training to perform these duties. Some organizations prefer to donate their archives to a local public or university library or public archives where they are more readily available to social historians. For example, the United Grain Growers donated a large collection to the University of Manitoba while the Canadian Mental Health Association - Manitoba Division donated many of its archives to the Provincial Archives of Manitoba, a branch of the Manitoba Government Department of Culture, Heritage and Tourism.

Issues and trends in special libraries
Perhaps the most pressing issue facing special libraries recently has been the downsizing of their parent organizations. Many special libraries have had their budgets severly cut, or their entire services "outsourced" to a local academic library. When this occurs, library staff may be re-deployed to other departments within the organization or given severance or early retirement packages. Special librarians are aware of the need to actively market their services to ensure that the library is viewied as an essential service within the organization.
Special libraries are constantly seeking ways to streamline operations and to keep costs of maintaing the library's collection to a minimum. Consequently, cataloguing in special libraries is often outsourced, to allow the staff to concerntrate their efforts on information services. In this instance, the use of outsourceing is an opportunity for the library to expand rather than reduce services.
The reliance on electronic resources is as prevalent in special libraries as it is in other types of libraries. CD-ROM resources have reduced the costs of providing electronic access to periodical indexes. Special libraries are actively involved in developing the parent organization's Website or home pages on the World Wide Web, or the company's Intranet.

National libraries
National libraries are considered a type of special library. However, they are distinct enough to warrant their own section. National libraries are usually funded by the federal government and serve the entire nation. In Canada, two major national libraries are the National Library of Canada and the Canada Institute for Scientific and Technicial Information (CISTI). In the United States, there are the Library of Congress, the National Library of Medicine and the National Agriculture Library. Visit the Library of Congress Homepage at http://www.loc.gov/index.html

National Library of Canada (NLC)
NLC was formed in 1953. It is located in Ottawa. Its mandate is to acquire, preserve and promote the published heritage of Canada. NLC also provides a leadership role in resource sharing among Canadian libraries and in promoting the development of library services in Canada. NLC's collection is the most comprehensive collection of materials about Canada and by Canadians in the world.

Basic services
The NLC offers twenty-four different servcies. The National Library's Website can be visited at http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/

Some of the major services of the NLC are:
1. Access AMICUS
2. Canadiana (The National Bibliography)
3. Cataloguing Standards
4. Interlibrary Loan
5. Library Information Service
6. Union Catalogue

Access AMICUS
AMICUS, "the Canadian National Catalogue", is the National Library's oldest automated system. NLC began the development of AMICUS in 1991, and, by 1996, it replaced the older system, DOBIS. AMICUS contains over 25 million bibliographic records from 1,300 Canadian libraries. These records can now be searched via the World Wide Web at http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/amicus/index-e.html This service is now known as "AMICUS Web". To access the full version of AMICUS Web, you must obtain a free personal acount. This is an excellent source for cataloguing copy, bibliographic verifications and library locations for materials.

Canadiana
Canadiana is the National Bibliography listing both publications produced in Canada and those produced in other countries about subjects of interest to Canada or by Canadian authors. The list is available on microfiche, magnetic tape or by accessing AMICUS.

Cataloguing standards
The National Library assists in the development of Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Repetoire vedettes-matiere, Canadian Subject Headings, Class FC for Canadian History and Class PS 8000 for Canadian Literature.

Interlibrary loan
This service produces bibliographies, indexing services and in-house databases about library and information science.

Union catalogue
Selected Canadian libraries report their holdings to the NLC. The National Library produces a union catalogue from these records. A major product avaialable from this service is Romulus, a CD-ROM product produced by the National Libraruy and CISTI. Romulus provides locations for periodicals in the social sciences, humanities and science and technology and for Canadian newspapers. This is an invaluable tool for dument delivery services within libraries.

National Library of Canada activity
Visit the NLC Website at http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/
1. How many bibliographic records are in the NLC catalogue?
2. a) How many sound records does the NLC hold?
2. b) What types are they?
3. How many items are there in the Rare Book Collection?
4. a) Using the virtual tour on which floor is the Reference Services located?
4. b) What services are provided in this area?
5. How many copies of book or music publication must be deposited to the NLC under the Legal Deposit regulations, if more than 101 copies are published?
6. How many copies of musical sound recordings and multimedia kits must be deposited to the NLC?
7. How quickly after the release date of publications must they be deposited to the NLC?
8. Should the NLC be the first choice library for people living in Ottawa?
9. Can users browse the stacks at the NLC?
10. a) Using resAnet, determine how many titles written by Joan Routledge are held at the NLC.
10. b) What subject do they cover?
11. What different Access AMICUS services are there?
12. Can you download records from resAnet on the Web?
13. In what formats is Canadiana available in?

Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information (CISTI)
Like NLC, CISTI is located in Ottawa. Its collection contains over 50,000 different serial titles, over 600,000 books, conference proceedings and technical reports and two million technical reports on microfiche. All materials are in the fields of science and technology.

Basic services
CISTI offers current awareness services, database services, information services, and document delivery services. For more information, visit CISTI's home page at http://cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/

Current awareness services
CISTI offers three current awareness services: InfoAlert, SwetScan Alert and SwetScan. These services provide regular updated listings of current research, new publications and recent conferences in specific subject areas.

Database services
Database services include access to the National Library of Medicine's on-line search service MEDLARS, the National Library of Medicine's Docline service providing library locations for major health sciences journals, and Romulus.

Information services
CISTI receives thousands of requests each day. Its information services include searching for specific data, patent searches and referral to experts in the field. Information specialists at CISTI have expertise both in library and information science and a speciality in a field of science or technology.

Document delivery services
CISTI offers an extensive document delivery service. CISTI staff will verify article titles, search for translations of foreign language documents and provide articles, conference papers, technical reports or books in hardcopy, fax or electronic file formats.

CISTI activity
Visit the CISTI Website at http://cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/
1. What is CISTI's mission?
2. Who are CISTI's clients?
3. What is the primary focus of CISTI's collection?
4. What current awareness services are there?
5. How many serial titles are in CISTI's collection?
6. How many are currently received?
7. How many books, conferences and technical reports are in CISTI's collection?
8. How many microfiche does CISTI have?
9. Are internet-accessible electronic journals listed in CISTI's catalogue?
10. Does CISTI have limits on the language materials should be in to be included in its collection?
11. Can everyone search the Table of Contents database?
12. Is the journal Library Trends available through CISTI source?
13. What is the cost of having tables of contents of journals sent to you?
14. What is the average cost per year of a customized search profile?
15. a) Using CISTI's catalogue, determine how many titles by P.N. Scharbach (also known as Peter Scharbach) are listed.
b) What is their subject matter?

Virtual libraries
Finally, we come to a relatively new library phenomenon: the "virtual library". What exactly does this mean? A. J. Harley defines a virtual library as '[o]ne where the user has the illusion of access to a much larger collection of information than is really present, immediately or simultaneously. In the ultimate virtual library, [the user] has access to universal knowledge, without delay, at his desk.' A. J. Harley, 'The Nationwide Provision and Use of Information.' Aslib/IIS/LA Joint Conference Proceedings. (London: Library Association, 1990)
D. Kaye Gapen states that '[t]he virtual library has been defined as the concept of remote access to the contents and services of libraries and other information resources, combining an on-site collection of current and heavily used materials in both print and electronic form with an electronic network which provides access to, and delivery from, external worldwide library and commercial information and knowledge sources." (D. Kaye Gapen. "The Virtual Library: Knowledge, Society and the Librarian." The Virtual Library: Visions and Realities, edited by Laverna M. Saunders. (Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1993) p.1

Issues and trends in virtual libraries
There are some important issues linked to the development of virtual libraries. Users now have higher expectations regarding the information which should be available to them and how quickly they should be able to access it. Greater emphasis on information in electronic format has resulted in new classifications of library personnel, such as Internet librarians, webmaster and others. Library workers are suffering from technostress more frequently and face serious ergonomic issues when working long hours at computer workstations.
In his article, "Building Earth's Largest Library", Steve Coffman foresees the library of the future modeled on the Internet bookstore amazon.com. He predicts that future library catalogues will include reviews of materials, tables of contents, photos of covers and that delivery mechanisms will be improved and document delivery greatly enhanced. "Building Earth's Largest Library" could potentially influence collection development, alter relationships between libraries and significantly change document delivery. The article is located at http://web.archive.org/web/20050307122606/http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/mar99/coffman.htm alongside "Earth's Largest Library: One Librarian's Plan of Action" by Mike Dahn at http://web.archive.org/web/20020404174044/http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/jul99/dahn.htm