Introduction to libraries: Types of library catalogues

What is a library catalogue?
A library catalogue lists the materials held by the library. It also indicates where each item is located in the collection. Depending on the library, the description of items may be brief or very detailed. A library may or may not include every item in its catalogue. The library may produce a separate list or bibliographies of pamphlets, clippings or other special materials.

Functions of a library catalogue
All library catalogues, regardless of format, inform the library user:

1. Whether the library owns a particular copy of a particular item.
2. Which works by a specific author are in the collection.
3. Which editions of a particular work the library owns.
4. What materials are available on a particular subject.
5. About the following details for each item:
   a. Author
   b. Title
   c. Imprint
   d. Collation (number of pages, whether the item has illustrations, etc.)
   e. Subject headings
   f. Location in the collection

More recently, library catalogues also refer patrons to outside sources, such as sites on the Internet, and allow the patron to link directly to that site from the library’s catalogue.

Types of library catalogues
The four types of library catalogues are listed below.
1. Card catalogue
2. Book catalogue
3. COM catalogue
4. On-line Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)

Access points

Library catalogues provide access to items by their author, title, subject, co-author, translator, illustrator, and by series title. Each author’s name, or title, etc. is often referred to as an access point or entry. The catalogue will also provide the call number for each item, so that it may be located on the shelf.
Card catalogue format
All catalogues contain bibliographic records, but may represent this information differently.

OPAC format
To see the bibliographic record of Introduction to library public services displayed in Red River College (RRC)’s Library’s on-line catalogue, go to RRC’s Library Website:
http://www.rrc.mb.ca/library Click on “Search for books, etc.” on the right-hand side of the page. The “Simple Search” screen will appear with a “Search for” box. Enter the title of the book, Introduction to library public services. Then in the “Search by” menu, select “Title keyword” and then click on “Search”. The search will generate only two titles, select the first one, which is the 1992 edition. Note that each part of the record is labelled, making it easy for the library client to understand what information is being provided. Notice how certain items are underlined. If you were to point your mouse and click on Evans, G. Edward, the catalogue would automatically display a listing of all the works the library has by authors with the surname Evans. This list of course includes all titles by G. Edward Evans that the library has in the collection. Similarly, if you were to point and click on the subject heading “Reference services (Libraries)”, the catalogue would display a list of all the items available in the library on that subject.
The wide variety of on-line catalogues available on the Internet can be explored through Libdex: The Library Index (formerly, webCATS: Library Catalogues on the World Wide Web), created by Peter Scott and Doug Macdonald of the University of Saskatchewan Libraries. Its Web site address is http://www.libdex.com

Advantages and Disadvantages
Each of the four major types of catalogues has its advantages and disadvantages.

Card Catalogues
Until the early 1990s, this was the most familiar type of catalogue. The card catalogue is made up of 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm cards, each containing a full bibliographic record or part of a bibliographic record. These cards have a small hole in the middle of the card near the bottom edge. The cards are filed alphabetically by the entry in metal or wooden drawers in cabinets.
Each drawer has a rod extending the full length of the drawer. The rod is fed through the hole at the bottom of each card to keep them secure whenever a drawer is removed for consultation. The rod also serves the purpose of allowing filing to be double-checked for accuracy. When cards are first filed, they are placed above the rods. Another library staff member will then double-checked the filing. When all cards are filed correctly, the rod is removed to allow the new cards to fall into place and then returned to the drawer to secure the cards once more.
Card catalogues are often divided catalogues. This usually means that the catalogue is divided into two (or three) alphabetical sequences, one for authors and titles (or titles may have its own alphabetical sequence in a three-way divided catalogue) and one for subject headings. If a card catalogue is a dictionary catalogue, it is one alphabetical sequence with all entries inter-filed. Most libraries prefer divided catalogues.The fronts of the cabinet drawers have labels to indicate which alphabetical sequence is contained in each drawer, assisting the library user in quickly identifying the drawer they need to consult. In a divided catalogue, the labels may be colour-coded to identify whether a drawer belongs to the author/title or subject alphabetical sequence.
Although most libraries have now abandoned the card catalogue, we must not lose sight of the fact that it was a truly ingenious invention, serving the needs of library patrons admirably for many years. Unfortunately its disadvantages now outweigh its advantages in an electronic age.

Card catalogue advantages
1. Flexibility and currency: Staff time and size of collection growth permitting, cards for new materials can be added quickly and cards easily removed for those items no longer in the collection. The card catalogue is as up-to-date as your cataloguing and filing.
2. Ease of use: Library clients are comfortable with the alphabetical approach and can easily adapt to a divided catalogue. It is not much different from using either the white or yellow pages of a phone book. The white pages are for specific names of people and businesses (author/title drawers) and the yellow pages are for listings of companies in a particular type of business or people in a specific profession (subject drawers).
3. Availability: The likelihood of more than one person needing the same catalogue drawer at the same time is minimal. Unless, of course, every student in a class has been given exactly the same topic to research. This is often referred to as a queuing problem (i.e. everyone must wait in line).
4. Costs: In smaller libraries, the cost of maintaining a card catalogue is not overly expensive. Card stock is readily available and there are software programs that can produce catalogue cards on a computer printer. Libraries can now order prepared catalogue cards from their book supplier, which may only require the call number to be added.
Card catalogue disadvantages
1. Size: As the collection grows, so does the card catalogue. This takes up precious space which could be used to house more materials.
2. Human error: Even the most careful filer can make mistakes and these mistakes can be overlooked by someone checking for accuracy. A single card misfiled can lead to another card being misfiled. When large academic libraries had card catalogues, double-runs as they were fondly called, could become extremely large, resulting in hours of re-filing cards in their proper order. When a horrified gasp from a co-worker was heard as they were filing or checking it was known exactly what they had discovered.
3. Ease of use: Because of the way cards are filed, only one bibliographic item can be viewed at a time. Only the first word of a title or subject heading is accessible. If a patron cannot remember the first word of a title or does not know the exact subject heading, he or she may not find the item.
4. Costs: It takes time to file and pull cards and staff time is costly. When libraries have branches, it can be expensive to maintain many catalogues in many locations.
5. Flexibility and currency: Individual cards are not easily altered and may have to be reprinted. Before computer production of cards, many libraries purchased electric erasers to remove outdated headings on cards. Electric erasers were delicate instruments to use. If a person pressed too hard, the eraser would eat right through the card stock.

Book catalogues
A book catalogue lists bibliographic records in alphabetical order by various entries, or by classification number. There may be more than one record on each page. The pages are then bound into a cover, forming a book. Canadiana, a list of materials of Canadian origin or interest catalogued by the National Library, is an example of a book catalogue.

Book catalogue advantages
1. Ease of use: A book catalogue is like using a dictionary and requires little instruction in use. A whole page of entries can be scanned at once.
2. Size: It is compact in size, allowing it to be carried anywhere within the library.
3. Costs: The first copy is the most expensive to produce. If the book catalogue is not too large, many copies can be made and distributed throughout the library, to classrooms, offices or other branch libraries.

Book catalogue disadvantages
1. Ease of use: Unless multiple copies are made, there is a queuing problem. Only one person can use the catalogue at a time.
2. Flexibility and currency: Bibliographic records for new materials cannot be inserted. A whole new book catalogue must be produced or a supplement created. Supplements require the library patron to search in at least two alphabetic sequences for each item.
Microform catalogues
There are two types of microform catalogues. Some libraries have photographed each catalogue card in alphabetical sequence then transferred these images onto microform or microfiche. When bibliographic records were first available in electronic format, high-speed cameras would photograph screen images and these images would be transferred onto microform. These are known as COM or computer output microform catalogues.Microform catalogues have been quickly overtaken by on-line catalogues are now primarily used as a backup when an on-line system goes down.

Microform catalogue advantages
1. Ease of use: Like the book catalogue, many records can be scanned at one time. Indexes can provide easy access to a specific alphabetic sequence. Headings at the top of the fiche indicate the first entry on each fiche and each fiche is numbered sequentially for easy filing.
2. Size: Microfiche or microfilm takes up very little storage space and can store many records on one fiche or film.
3. Costs: Multiple copies are very inexpensive to produce.

Microform catalogue disadvantages
1. Ease of use: Microform is an extremely unpopular format. Equipment is required to use the catalogue. Fiche can be easily misfiled or placed one behind another in the holders. Library users are frustrated when the fiche they require is missing. Many copies of the catalogue and machines are required to avoid problems with queuing.
2. Flexibility and currency: New bibliographic records can not be inserted, nor can records for lost items be deleted. Like the book catalogue, the entire catalogue must be reproduced to incorporate changes. Most libraries choose to produce supplements.
3. Costs: The first copy of the microform catalogue is very expensive to produce. There are also maintenance costs involved with the equipment.

Integrated library systems
It is important to understand that an OPAC is merely a single module within an integrated library system. The major functions within a library are:

• Acquisitions
• Cataloguing
• Circulation
• Serials
• Reference (online public access catalogue, access to electronic reference resources)

Integrated library systems definitions
An integrated library system automates library functions. Beverly Duval states that “An integrated library system is one whose functions use a single database made up of a collection of files. All the functions are fully interactive with one another and are kept automatically in synchronization. For example, if a book is checked out at circulation, that is simultaneously reflected in the OPAC”. (Duval, Beverly and Main, Linda. Automated library systems: a librarian’s guide and teaching manual. Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1992. p.5)

An integrated library system can talk or interface with external sources on the Internet such as vendors for library materials and cataloguing utilities where cataloguing records can be imported into the local library’s catalogue.You may also hear the term turnkey system. Duval defines this term as, “an automated library system which has been designed, programmed and tested by a vendor and then offered for sale to libraries, ready to be installed and operated. In theory, when the system is delivered and installed, all that is required is to plug it in and turn it on”. (Ibid, p. 258)

Most libraries do not develop their own systems, as there is a wide variety of systems on the market. However, note carefully Duval’s wording, “in theory”. It is not always that easy to install a new automated system and have it running smoothly right away. Library staff find that when they change another system (called “migrating” in the library world), all sorts of unforeseen issues arise. Many of them stem from inconsistent or unsophisticated use of MARC coding. Because turnkey systems often developed for a ‘standard library’, you may find that you will have to make compromises in your choice of system. Often features or complete modules may be missing or still in development. Until very recently, many integrated library systems targeted to school libraries did not have either acquisitions or serials modules.

Databases or files
An integrated library system has several databases or files. The bibliographic database contains a cataloguing record for each distinct item catalogued. The authority files show which headings for persons, corporate bodies, series or subjects have been used and cross-references those names or headings which have not been used. The item files contain records for each physical item. For example, there may be more than one copy of any Harry Potter title given its popularity. There would only be one bibliographic record for the title and two item records, one for each copy, giving the barcode and loan status for each copy. The funds database manages the financial records for purchasing materials. The vendor database contains the names and addresses for all the different publishers, bookstores, or jobbers used to purchase materials for a library. The patron database contains all the information pertaining to each registered patron.

How do these databases and modules relate to one another? The OPAC draws upon almost all the databases, as it will not only list which items are in the library, it will also let the patron know whether the item is on the shelf, signed out and when it is due, missing or lost. The circulation module uses both the patron database and the bibliographic database to link a particular patron to the record for each item he/she signs out. The cataloguing module makes use of the bibliographic database. You may be adding new records, deleting records or modifying existing records. It also uses the authority database to let you know that the author’s authorized heading is already in the catalogue, or that the author writes under more than one name. The cataloguing module interacts with the acquisitions module. As items are ordered, as much bibliographic information is entered so that it may be transferred into the cataloguing module when it is received. The acquisitions module makes use of the bibliographic, funds and vendor databases. The serials module makes use of the bibliographic and funds databases as well as holding information. As each new issue of a magazine is received, it is entered into the serials module. The computer is programmed to know when the next issue is expected and will alert library staff if an issue is overdue.

Before automating
The very first question to be asked before choosing a system is, “How can we improve services to our clients with a new automated system?” If you are automating for the first time, the following steps should be taken:
- Determine improvements in services required or desired
- Evaluate present procedures
- Determine set of tasks, how much time, how much staff
- Determine what type of control needed
- Determine how tasks interrelate

What to look for in an integrated library system
Ease of use: Are the screens easy to read and understand? Is there online help? Are keystrokes or commands kept to a minimum?
Integration: Can modules be purchased individually or in phases to keep costs down? Do modules truly interact with one another?
Industry standards: Are cataloguing records in full MARC 21 format? Is there authority control? Is the system Z39.50 compatible? Is it a Windows-based system? Can the catalogue be accessed through the World Wide Web? Does the acquisitions module accept electronic data interchange (EDI) documents?
Speed of transactions: If a circulation transaction takes longer than 2-5 seconds, it is too slow. Record input should take only 10 seconds.
Customer support: Is toll-free telephone support provided? Are product guarantees given? Is there a surcharge for maintenance and support? How knowledgeable are the staff providing the customer support?
Training: Does the vendor require staff to attend training sessions? If so, how much time and how much does it cost?
Documentation: Are there manuals? Are they written in “computerese” or English?
Price: Is it within your budget range? Are you getting your money’s worth?Upgrade policy: What are the vendor’s plans for future development?
Multi-user capacity: How is the system networked? Is it reliable when many people are using the system at one time?
Portability: Can bibliographic records be exported should you wish to migrate to another system? Remember that many libraries change automated systems every three to five years if their vendor does not have an aggressive update policy.

Sources of information
There is a lot of information to be gathered before making an informed choice about selecting an integrated automated library system. Fortunately, there are many resources available, including promotional materials from the vendor, books, articles, reviews, exhibits at conferences and visits to other libraries.

Vendors
Vendors provide a wide variety of brochures, demonstration packages, and testimonials. Most now have Websites which provide a great deal of information about their product.

Books
The following books are helpful in learning about integrated library systems.
Breeding, Marshall. PC-based integrated library systems. Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1994.
Day, Theresa Thurman, Flanders, Bruce L. and Zuck, Gregory James. Automation for school libraries. Chicago: ALA, 1994.
Meghabghab, Dania Bilal. Automating media centers and small libraries: a microcomputer-based approach. Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1997.

Journals with reviews
Computers in libraries
Information technology and libraries
Library hi-tech
Library software review
Library technology reports
Library journal (the first issue in April has a review of various vendors) Integrated library system reports
http://ww.ilsr.com

Recent articles
To obtain recent articles on integrated library systems, consult the following Websites:
Integrated library system reports http://ww.islr.com/reviews/search2.cfm
Library automation resources: tools to help you choose a library management system http://www.libraryhq.com/automation.html

Sample timeline of an automation project
Compiled from the following article: Adams, Helen. Media magic: automating a K-12 library program in a rural district. Emergency librarian. 21 (May-June 1994): 24-29.

This article describes a project in rural central Wisconsin, in the Rosholt School District. There are two library resource centres, one for K-8, another for 9-12. The system has 650 students altogether.

Date/Activity
1986 Committee set up to revise district Media Services Plan
1987 Long range plan presented to Education Board in January
1987 Plan adopted, collections weeded and retrospective conversion begun1987 Nine months spent to complete conversion of 11,000 unique items
1987/88 Vendor research begun
1988 Networked circulation system installed in August
1988 Barcoding in August and September (24 student, community, faculty and administrative volunteers assist)
1990 Networked union catalogue component added (one week to install network, library automation software, build indexes, do backups, run diagnostics, train staff)
1990 Teachers trained at all day open-house, three weeks for student training
1992 New Technology Committee set up to develop comprehensive technology plan (four months taken to produce plan)
1992/93 Implementation of plan (results have included enlarging and enhancing resource centres with the addition of computer labs)
1993 Evaluation of plan submitted to Board in April
1993 CD-ROM resources networked
1994 Modem access to public library catalogue provided in January
1994 Internet access given by University in the fall

Vendors activity
Visit the Library Technology Guides vendor Website at: http://lib11.library.vanderbilt.edu/ltg/VEND-search.pl Search for the following popular vendors by entering their names in the second box: CASPR, Follett Software, Hardcover Software, Kelowna Software, The Library Corporation, SIRS Mandarin Inc. and Winnebago Software. In each case, click on the link to their respective Websites to help answer the following questions:
1. Which modules does this system have: acquisitions, cataloguing, circulation, OPAC, serials, and/or A/V bookings?
2. Does this company seem to be marketing their system to a specific type(s) of library(-ies)?
3. Does this system accept MARC (machine-readable cataloguing)?
4. Does the company provide customer support? If yes, does this include a toll-free helpline?
5. Does the company provide training?
6. Can you place your catalogue on the Web with this system?
7. Does this system support Z39.50 protocol?
8. Is a demo of the system available?
9. Does the vendor provide references of other libraries already using its system?

On-line public access catalogues
As computer technology advances and the price of computer hardware and software decreases, more libraries are converting their catalogues to On-line Public Access Catalogues (OPACs).

Note that many libraries, including those in Third World countries, are providing access to their collections with extremely sophisticated systems using the latest graphical user interface (GUI) technology. Library clients are becoming increasingly comfortable with using computers to search for information and have very high expectations of computers’ abilities.

Looking at bibliographic records in electronic format
In an on-line catalogue, bibliographic records are stored in an electronic database. Each element of a bibliographic record is entered into a separate field. Red River College’s library catalogue can be accessed at http://www.rrc.mb.ca/index.php?pid=5423 and then click on the Search for Books, etc. link.
Search for RRC’s bibliographic record of Carol Shield’s Stone diaries. Carol Shields’ name is the main author field. Stone diaries is in the title field. Each record has a unique record number. This record’s number is 34661, only visible in the “Staff View” screen as MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloguing) field 001. View this MARC record by clicking on the “Staff View (MARC)” button, which appears on the display screen. When a person at the OPAC keys in a request for the author Carol Shields, the computer does not search through every single record for her name. It searches an author index instead. When it finds an index entry for Carol Shields, there will be a list of record numbers for items with her name in the author field. The computer would then respond to the person at the terminal by either listing the actual bibliographic records found (usually in an abbreviated format) or with the number of items found and ask the person if they wish to have them displayed. Searching indexes rather than each entire record enables the computer to respond quickly to a request. Early on-line catalogues were cumbersome to use, requiring users to learn special commands for finding an author or subject heading (e.g. A= or AU= or browse au). GUI-based on-line catalogues now have easy to understand icons. Using a mouse, a user merely has to move a pointer to the icon desired and click for a search by author, title or subject. Searches can now be performed specifying date ranges, media format, publication language, or ISBN number. The combinations seem endless.

Do a keyword search for the RRC Library record for Introduction to library public services (5th edition, 1992) by using only this part of the title, “library public services”. By searching this way, find that this particular record comes up within the top 10 of over 5000 records. Remember how a disadvantage of the card catalogue was that the patron had to know the first word of the title? In this search the word introduction was not entered at all. The computer was able to search several indexes for the occurrence of any of the three words, library, public, or services and rank the records, which contained all three words with the highest relevance.

Search for The stone diaries by entering the author’s name “Carol Shields” as keywords. As a keyword search, it is not important that the author is entered as “Carol Shields” rather than “Shields, Carol”. The computer looked for either of those words in various indexes and ranked those records, which had both, with the highest relevance.
Search for The Time manager by limiting to a particular format. Before searching the keywords, “time management”, set the limit to videorecording. Therefore, when the computer searches for “time management” it only retrieves records for videorecordings containing those two words.That is not to say that on-line catalogues are easy to create and maintain.
Search again for the MARC record of The Stone diaries. Note how it has a much more complex look than the non-MARC display. It is no wonder that in RRC’s OPAC, MARC records are only accessible through the “Staff View”. Even though some systems have created user-friendly screens for entering cataloguing data, a sound knowledge of basic MARC coding is required to effectively catalogue library materials in an on-line catalogue.

On-line public access catalogue advantages
Like any other type of catalogue OPACs have their advantages and disadvantages.
1. Flexibility and currency: OPACs are easily updated. As soon as items are entered, they can be indexed to become accessible. Some systems index new items the moment they are entered. Records are also easily removed from the database.
2. Ease of use: New GUI technology makes OPACs very user-friendly. OPACs offer sophisticated methods of searching for materials. Users can combine terms such as “Shields” in the author field and “diaries” in the title field, limit searches to a particular date range or format. If the OPAC is networked, terminals can be installed throughout the school, university, public library or branches of a library, making catalogues accessible from individual’s desktops. Regional library systems can now access each other’s catalogues. Some libraries offer access to their catalogues over phone lines or the Internet. Clients can search the catalogue from the comfort of their own home.
3. Size: Terminals can take up much less space than bulky card catalogues. Patrons do not have to be physically in the building to access the library’s catalogue.

On-line public access catalogue disadvantages
1. Ease of use: Not all OPAC user interfaces are created equal. Some are menu-driven, intuitive and easy to use. Others may not be user-friendly at all. It would then require staff time to train library patrons. Several terminals would be necessary to avoid line ups. Some form of backup is needed if the system goes down, or the library catalogue will be unavailable. Complicated search strategy options can lead to too many or too few results. This can easily waste users’ time.
2. Costs: Depending on the size of the library, the type of computer hardware, software and networking cable required plus the retrospective conversion of existing bibliographic records in the library’s manual catalogue, the cost can be extremely high. In addition, existing libraries would need to undergo a ruthless weeding of their collection before the retrospective conversion can begin. However, small libraries can now afford microcomputers, which have high capacity memories, making on-line catalogues within their financial reach.
3. Design: If the system is poorly designed, it may require undue switching back and forth between screens to see detailed records. This can be tedious and frustrating for the user.
Classification schemes and call numbers

In ancient times, libraries arranged clay tablets by subject. Classification schemes allow libraries to shelve like materials together. This process is called collocation. Libraries add author numbers, book numbers or cutter numbers to classification numbers to provide a unique call number, identifying where each item is shelved. This way the patron knows the location of the item.

To better understand the concept of collocation, think for a moment how library users might wish to find information about dogs. One person may want material on dogs in general. Another individual might be interested in a specific breed of dogs, such as the basset hound. A well-designed classification scheme would arrange materials about dogs on the shelves in a logical and orderly manner. All books about dogs would be in the same major class and subdivision. The subdivision would have further divisions. Books about dogs could be shelved in the following order:

1. Books about dogs in general
2. Books about training dogs
3. Books about specific breeds of dogs:
   a. Books about Alaskan malamutes
   b. Books about basset hounds
   c. Books about beagles
   d. Books about huskies
   e. Books about Labrador retrievers, etc.

Classification schemes break down the total body of human knowledge into major categories or classes. Within each class, there may be smaller categories, or subdivisions. Classes and subdivisions are assigned either numbers or letters to identify them. This way, all materials on a particular subject will have the same number or letter. Most schemes have the same major classes of knowledge, such as history, science, literature and music.

There are two major classification schemes used in libraries, the Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC or Dewey) and the Library of Congress Classification System (LC). As a rule, public and school libraries use Dewey and academic and research libraries use LC. The Dewey Decimal Classification System uses numbers for classes and subdivisions. The Library of Congress Classification System uses a combination of letters and numbers.

Dewey Decimal Classification System
The U.S. librarian, educator and social reformer, Melvil Dewey (1851-1931) divided the entire body of human knowledge into ten categories using Arabic numbers to represent each class. Major classes were further divided into ten subcategories and subdivisions were further divided by using decimal places. Consequently, his system is called a decimal classification system and was originally published in 1876. As knowledge continues to grow and expand, Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) continues to grow and expand along with it. For more information about Dewey, the system and its creator, visit: http://www.oclc.org/dewey/about/default.htm

Major classes have numerals such as 100, 200, 300, etc. up to 900. The class represented by 600 is technology or applied sciences. History is represented by 900. North American history is assigned 970. Access the Dewey Decimal Classification System Website at: http://www.oclc.org/dewey/

Dewey Decimal Classification System Examples
If a library has many books on a broad topic, DDC allows each aspect of that topic to be represented by a specific number by adding a decimal point and more numerals.
Example: A book on electronic engineering: 621.38
A book on cellular telephones: 621.38456
DDC numbers are arranged in decimal order on the shelves (e.g. a book with 621.382 is shelved before one with 621.39).

If a library has more than one book on the same topic, an author number or Cutter number or book number is added. These can be the first three letters of an author’s surname, or a combination of one letter and three numbers rep resenting a specific surname as assigned by the Cutter-Sanborn Three Figure Author Table.
Example: 512 Dickensen, D. Introduction to algebra D557i 512 Dickensen, D. Principles of algebra D557p

If the library has several different sections where items may be found, a location code can be added to guide the library client to the correct location of a book. The most common examples of different areas in a library are the reference section and children’s collection.
If the work on electronic engineering was a major handbook and needed to be in the reference section, the call number would read:
R Ref
621.3 or 621.38
GAR GAR

Standard location abbreviations are:R or Ref = Reference, J = Juvenile, LP = Large print, AV = Audio visual

Library of Congress classification system
Instead of numerals, the Library of Congress (LC) uses upper case letters to represent major classes of knowledge. For example, the field of Geography is assigned the letter G. Subclasses are assigned two upper class letters. The subclass GB represents the field of physical geography. Subdivisions of major classes are assigned Arabic numerals. A very specific subdivision may also have a decimal extension.
Explore the Library of Congress Classification outline at: http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/

Library of Congress classification system examples
A Canadian cookbook by Pat Routledge published in 1990, would have the following call number:
TX Class for “home economics”
715.6 Subdivision for “cookbooks…” and a .6 decimal for “Canadian”
.R68 Book number for “Routledge”

Introduction to Libraries: Basic library functions

Although there are different types of libraries, they all perform the same basic functions to effectively provide information and services to their clients.

Types of Libraries
Early libraries were often part of religious institutions. Many private libraries and royal libraries also existed in ancient times. Libraries are now divided into four major types:

1. Academic,
   
2. Public,
   
3. School, and
   
4. Special

In addition, there is an emerging fifth type of library, the "virtual" or "electronic library". This type of library is not yet "officially" included in this list of libraries because it is so new that there is not yet a consensus in the library field as to what definitely constitutes a "virtual library". "Time will tell", as the saying goes.

Although the infomation needs of a college student writing a term paper is quite different from those of a public library patron wanting a book on effective parenting, all types of libraries serve the needs of their clientele by performing the same basic library functions.

Public services

Public services are those activities in which library staff have direct contact with library users. Library patrons judge the quality of library services by their experiences with public services staff members. In customer service literature, these experiences are known as "moments of truth". If a library patron has a bad experience he or she may never use the library again.

Major public service activities include:

1. Circulation
2. Information Services (Reference work)
3. Document Delivery (Interlibrary loan)
4. Library Promotion

Circulation
There are four major tasks in circulation:

1. Registering new borrowers
2. Charging out or renewing items
3. Discharging items
4. Returning items to their proper location.

Registering new borrowers
To register a new borrower, library staff have to determine if the individual is permitted to borrow library materials or if the individual has to pay a fee for borrowing privileges. The table below identifies typical categories of patrons with borrowing privileges in the four types of libraries. Borrower registration is essential, as it allows the library to keep records of which items are signed out to each borrower.

Registering new borrowers
To register a borrower, library staff must determine if the individual is permitted to borrow library materials or if the individual has to pay a fee for borrowing privileges. The table below identifies typical categories of patrons with borrowing privileges in the four types of libraries.

Type of library	Patrons with borrowing privileges
Academic	Students, faculty, non-academic and administrative staff, alumni; General public often pay for a fee for borrowing privileges
Public	All residents of the community; Residents of other communities may have to pay a fee to borrow materialis
School	Students, teachers, administration, staff; Some schools also allows parents, students from other schools and the general public to borrow
Special	Most often only employees of the company or institution; Some government libraries or libraries in social services agencies or societies lend to the general public

Charging out items or renewing items
When an item is charged out, a record is created linking the borrower's record to the item's record and a due date is assigned. Accuracy is essential in a circulation transaction. Items, which are charged out incorrectly can result in an individual being charged overdue fines for items never borrowed. Items are renewed when the due date is extended. Speed is important. Labour-intensive circulation systems cause line-ups at the desk and frustrated library patrons.

Discharging items
When items are returned, the link between the borrower's record to the item's record must be cancelled. This is called discharging. Again, accuracy is important to avoid overdue fines for materials, which have been returned and are on the shelf.

Returning items to their proper location
This activity is commonly called shelving. Today's libraries have many different forms of materials. Not all items are placed on shelves. Speed and accuracy are important in undertaking this task. An item shelved or filed incorrectly is a missing item in the library patron's eyes. Many patrons may not take the time to ask if an item has been returned recently or request library staff to search for an item not on the shelf. Consequently, discharged materials not returned to their proper location quickly may also be considered missing.

Information services
Formerly called "Reference work", information services include the following activities:
1. Answering directional questions
2. Information retrieval
a) Ready or quick reference
b) In-depth research
c) Information referral
3. Readers' advisory

When a library user asks where the photocopiers are, he or she is asking a directional question. The same attention and care should be given in answering a directional question as for an in-depth research request. If library staff are perceived as being friendly and helpful, the individual will be more likely to seek the staff's assistance in finding information.

Ready or quick reference
When a question can be answered by quickly consulting such reference works as a dictionary, encyclopedia or directory, it is a ready or quick reference questions. Such questions normally seek simple, straightforward answers based on factual information that can be easily found or verified in an appropriate reference work. The challenge for the library worker is to know which reference tool would provide the most efficient and direct means to find the information. As the great British lexicographer, Samuel Johnson, is attributed to say, "The importance of information is on knowing where to find it".
The following questions fall into the category of "quick" or "ready" reference question.
When did Elvis Presley die? (Some may not consider this a quick reference question!)
Who was Prime Minister of Canada in 1900?

In-depth research
Some requests require an extensive search of many different sources and media formats. Assisting someone in locating material on the portrayal of women in advertising would require searching for books, periodical articles, advertising in magazines and newspapers held in the library, and video resources. Library staff also use periodical indexes on CD-ROM and remote databases to assist them in conducting in-depth research.

Information referral
When information is not available in the library, patrons need to be referred to other resources. This may be another library, an association or social agency. For example, if a person needed information about a rare disease, a support group would be an excellent source of information. To the patron, it does not matter that the library did not have the information, if he or she is given an alternate resource. Libraries do well not to let patrons leave empty-handed and unsatisfied. To the extent that "perception is everything" this practice of at least giving something to patrons to go on allows patrons to go on allows patrons to see that they can depend on the library as an effective source of information.

Reader's advisory
This is primarily a public library service. Often library staff will be asked to recommend other books similar to those written by Len Deighten or if there are any new Canadian mystery writers. There are special reference tools to assist library staff in answering this type of request.

Document delivery
Formerly known as "interlibrary loan", document delivery is a rapidly growing service in all types of libraries. If an item is not available in the library, document delivery staff determine which library has the item and request it form that library on an interlibrary loan. As library budgets shrink and information resources explode in number, it is essential to share resources with other libraries and to seek out alternate methods of acquiring information. Commercial services are now available, which offer, for a fee, guaranteed delivery of copies of periodical articles within 24 hours or less. When a patron considers time is more important than money and is willing to pay, libraries will order from these commercial suppliers. Because these items are not received from another library, many interlibrary loan services are now called document delivery services.

Library promotion
In the current climate of deficit reduction and fiscal restraint, it is more important than ever to promote library services and maintain positive relationships with library clientele, granting agencies and parent organizations. The library must be viewed as an essential service in the community, schools, universities, colleges, and in business or it may face closure.
There are many ways to promote the library. The first and foremost is to constantly strive to give the best service possible to clients. Satisfied customers are repeat customers and can be the library's best allies when budget cuts arise. Libraries also need to market their services to ensure that the public is aware of the wealth of services libraries have to offer.
Libraries need to sponsor programs to attract new clients and encourage regular patrons to come more often. Libraries are increasingly involved in fundraising campaigns. It is not uncommon for libraries to sell T-shirts, coffee mugs and other promotional items.
Recently, the Canadian Library Association has endorsed a program called Library Advocacy Now! Friends of Libraries, library trustees and library staff members across Canada are receiving advocacy training. This involves learning how to promote public support of libraries throughout the use of the media, lobbying governments and awareness campaigns.

Technical Services
If you were to follow the steps from ordering library materials to their being available to the public, most technical services activities would be included. These are:
1. Collection Development
2. Acquisitions
3. Cataloguing
4. Processing

Collection Development
Also known as Selection, collection development is the process of determining which materials to acquire within a budget. Libraries have collection development policies to assist them in allocating scarce resources. The policy outlines what emphasis should be placed on different media, subject areas, audience level and fiction. It also states when multiple copies should be purchased, the criteria used to weed materials out of the collection (e.g. accuracy, currency, circulation, condition, etc.), and how to handle gifts or controversial materials. These policies are invaluable when individuals request the removal of items from the collection on moral or religious grounds. A well-written and detailed policty combined with an established procedure for handling challenged materials ensures the issue will be handled calmly and professionally.

Acquisitions
Once materials are selected, they are are then acquired or purchased. There are many activities in acquisitions.
1. Bibliographic verification (author, title, publisher, price)
2. Checking against library's catalogue (to avoid duplication)
3. Choosing supplier (which company offers best price)
4. Preparing and sending orders (orders many now be sent electronically)
5. Maintaining order files (to keep track of what's ordered, received)
6. Maintaining accounts (to ensure proper billing and payment, staying within budget)
7. Receiving items (ensuring proper items received, back orders)
8. Paying invoices

It is important to keep accurate and up-to-date records in acquisitions. No library wishes to be under or over budget.

Cataloguing
Cataloguing is the process of creating bibliographic records for items in the library's collection. Years ago, it was a very labour-intensive process. The advances in computer technology have allowed libraries to easily acquire bibliographic records from commercial sources and other libraries. To further reduce staff costs, many libraries now outsource their cataloguing. Outsourcing is contracting an outside agency to do the cataloguing for the library. However, libraries still catalogue items which, are locally produced and are unlikely to have been previously catalogued by another library.

Another major responsibility in cataloguing is maintaining the library's catalogue. Bibliographic records for missing items or items withdrawn from the collection must be removed from the catalogue.

Processing
After an item is catalogued, it must be prepared for use. Call number and barcode labels need to be affixed. Items need to be stamped with the library's name. Items also require protective measures. Book jackets are laminated or covered with a plastic cover. Audiovisual materials may need special containers. After prolonged use, some materials may need repairing. Most libraries perform only minor repairs, such as taping torn pages, tipping in loose pages, lor reinforcing the hignes and spine with binding tape.

Specials maintenance
Periodicals, because they are received on an ongoing basis, require special attention. As each issue is received, it must be recorded in a Kardex file or in an on-line serials management system. The date each issue is received is also recorded. This assists staff in predicting when the next issue should arrive. Much time is spent claiming issue swhich are late arriving and in processing invoices and in subscription renewal. Special and academic libraries generally have very large periodical collections. After a complete volume has been received, the issuesmay be prepared for binding. Many libraries buy complete volumes of periodicals in a microform format rather than bind them, to save space.

Interrelationships between services
In small libraries, the distincition between public services and technical services are not as great as in large libraries. In a one-person library that person performs all the tasks and easily recognizes how all the activities contribute to effective service.
In larger libraries it is essential that staff members understand how their work interrelates with others. If circulation staff is slow in returning materials to the shelves, this has a serious impact on the reference staff's ability to provide quality service. If cataloguing staff is slow in removing records for missing or discarded items from the catalogue, circulation or reference staff can spend far too much time looking for an item which is no longer in the collection.

Introduction to libraries: History of books and libraries

Socio-Economic Conditions Favourable to Libraries
Libraries have been in existence since the ancient world. Jean Key Gates states that libraries tend to prosper when any of the following economic and social conditions occur:

1. When the value of preserving, transmitting and enlarging the body of knowledge is recongized.
2. When the people have the time and money to pursue cultural and intellectual activities.
3. In periods of high levels of intellectual creativity and scholarly activity.
4. When society emphasizes the need for self-improvement and well-informed citizens.
5. In large urban areas which have sufficient cultural and intellectual interest and the financial means to support libraries and their use.
6. When economic conditions allow for substantial individual and corporate wealth and encourage charitable donations.
7. When distribution and use of information and knowledge is viewed as a key factor in sustaining economic growth and national power and status.
Jean Key Gates, Introduction to Librarianship, 3rd ed. (New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, c1990, 5-6)

Highlights of Canadian Library History
This section is based upon information found in Chapter 2 of Lorraine M. Williams, The Library trustree and the public librarian: partners in service, (Ottawa: Canadian Library Association, 1987)

French settlement and early British rule
Like the settlers of the American colonies, early French explorers, missionaries and priests brought books with them on their voyages to the New World. As early as 1635 the Jesuits created a library at their headquarters in New France. The first libraries in Canada were small religious collections and private libraries of officials.

After the British conquest in 1763, Governor Frederick Haldeman helped to establish the first subscription library in 1780. The cost of belonging to the library for French and English subscribers was a down payment of 5 pounds Sterling and 2 pounds Sterling a year. Governor John James Simcoe donated his private collection to the Legislature of Upper Canada in 1791. The collection consisted of primarily legal and historical works.

Many of the United Empire Loyalists, who sought refuge in Canada during the American Revolution, were affulent families who valued book ownership and education. They established many private and social libraries in their new communities.

Highlights of Canadian Library History
As institutions of higher learning were formed, such as the College of New Brunswick (founded in 1795) and King's College (circa 1802) in Nova Scotia, scholars donated collections of books which evolved into libraries.

As in Great Britain, the early nineteenth century witnessed the development of Mechanics Institutes Libraries. Mechanics Institues sponsored lecture series and provided reading material for the working class. Several of these agencies received governmental funding and their collections became some oef the first public libraries in Canada.

In the mid-1800's school district libraries were developed in Ontario and eastern Canada. Although operated by schools, these libraries were created to serve the general public.

In western Canada, early explorers and fur traders brought a few books with them. The Hudson Bay Company made books available to traders at their outposts. Agent John McLaughlin had a sizeable collection of reading materials for private use and for the use of his many visitors. In 1847, the Red River Library was established in Manitoba. The collection was a donation by Peter Fidler, a trader and land speculator. As in eastern Canada, governmental officials, professional men and businessmen often had large private collections, which they donated to assist in the development of public and college libraries.

It was not, however, until the last quarter of the nineteenth century that significant development of libraries occurred throughout Canada. New colleges and universities were founded, school libraries developed, and governments passed legislation providing for the development of municipally supported libraries. In 1882, the Ontario Free Libraries Act authorized towns to raise taxes for free libraries.

Twentieth Century to World War Two
By 1900, there were nearly 400 public libraries in Ontario alone and there was such significiant interest in libraries that the Ontario Library Association was formed. In 1901, McGill University received an endowment to create the McLennan Travelling Libraries. Collections were loaned for three months for a fee of $4.00. Shipments of thirty to forty books were sent to any place in the Dominion of Canada. Western provinces established similar travelling services in the early 1900's. The Saskatchewan Travelling Library Service began in 1914.

Andrew Carnegie's Foundation greatly assisted the growth of public libraries in the United States, and to a lesser extent, Canada. It gave over $56 million to finance more than 2,500 libraries across North America in the early twentieth century. In Canada, 125 Carnegie libraries were built between 1901 and 1923, although only 13 were located outside Ontario. Carnegie money financed the William Avenue Library (1905), the St. John's (1914) and Cornish (1914) branch libraries in Winnipeg, and the Selkirk Carnegie Library (1909, now demolished).
This paragraph is mostly drawn from Donna G. Strike, ed. Directions: a guide to libraries in Manitoba, (Winnipeg: Manitoba Library Association, 1998). Note that the William Avenue Library at 380 William Ave. now houses the City of Winnipeg's archives.

By the 1920's larger libraries hired trained librarians. Public Library Acts were passed providing provincial government grants. Urban centres often found it necessary to establish branch libraries to serve the needs of a growing urban area and population base. However there was still a large part of the population which had no local library.

To overcome this disparity, two regional library services, in Prince Edward Island and the Fraser River Valley in B.C., were created with Carnegie Funds in the 1930's. The Prince Edward Island service was province-wide with central libraries in Charlottetown and Summerside. The Fraser River Valley system served over 40,000 individuals and had seven branch libraries and a bookmobile. Most provinces in Canada have adopted the regional library concept. For example, in Manitoba, there is the Public Library Service Branch of the Department of Culture, Heritage and Tourism. It provides assistance in the development of rural public libraries in Manitoba and makes materials available to remote areas of the province.

Highlights of Canadian Library History Since World War Two
This section is based upon information found in Chapter 2 of Lorraine M. Williams, The Library trustree and the public librarian: partners in service, (Ottawa: Canadian Library Association, 1987)

The Second World War produced great advances in technology and a heightened recognition of the importance of research and exchange of scholary information. Computer technology assisted the development of the atomic bomb and enhanced scientists' ability to perform extremely complex calculations. The postwar era in North America was one of remarkable economic prosperity. There was also a sharp increase in the birthrate, known as the baby boom. One consequence of this, in Canada, was a phenomenal growth both in the size an din the number of colleges and universities during the 1960's.

In 1953, the National Library of Canada was created, serving as a legal depository for all copyrighted materials produced in Canada. One of its many other services is to provide and coordinate interlibrary loan among Canadian libraries.

As government bureaucracies grew in size, so did the number of libraries serving the specialized needs of civil servants within departments of ministeries. Industrial and economic growth also created the need for corporations and businesses to quickly access critical information to ensure their competitiveness. Special libraries grew dramatically in size and in number during the 1960's and 1970's.

Although school libraies were slow to develop in some provinces, in the 1970's and 1980's, they were often centralized and became multi-media resource centres.

Perhaps the most challenging issue facing all libraries in Canada today is the ability to provide information in a wide variety of formats, while at the same time, experiencing continuing budgetary restraints and cutbacks.

Accompanying this module was chapter one of Guide of use of Libraries and Information Services by Jean Key Gates. It focused on the very beginning of libraries from approximately 3600 BC through to today. From the September 1997 issue of American Libraries, a article by Patricia Martin entitled Is Bill Gates the New Andrew Carnegie? and a Library Life Cycle, a graph from "Accentuate the Positive: Marketing Our Services, Marketing For Change" by Patrick O'Brien, in Public Library Quarterly February 1992.

Introduction to libraries: Sources of information

As I was saying, I have pretty much sussed out how I'm writing my next number of blog posts. I actually have a number in mind, but it's pretty frightening, so I'm not going to say anything and scare all of us!

I'm looking at the course description for Introduction to Libraries, which reads as follows:

Introduce yourself to various types of libraries and their organizations, purpose, function, and services. Levels of library employees are studied, with emphasis on the roles and duties of library technicians. Explore library terminology, the history of books and book publishing and the importance of library associations.

Of course, this didn't cover everything I studied for three months in 2002. It's just the main points!

There were seven modules in the course: Sources of information, History of books and libraries, Basic library functions, Types of library catalogues, Types of libraries, Types of library workers, and Library associations.

Sources of information:
Analyze your own perception of a library and learn about the wide variety of information sources available. Identify four ways libraries serve societies, list and describe S. R. Ranganathan's five laws of library science, list and describe the "Five laws for the future" of Walt Crawford and Michael Gorman, identify five major categories of information sources, define and describe various media types, define both physical and bibliographical book parts.

What is a library?
Most people have used at least one library in their lifetime. According to his or her's experience, each person will have different perceptions of the role and functions of a library.


How do libraries serve societies?
Libraries serve societies in four ways:

1. They acquire materials for others' use,

2. They store and preserve materials,

3. They organize materials for easy access,

4. Libraries staff assists clients in locating information.

G. Edward Evans, Anthony J. Amodeo and Thomas L. Carter, Introduction to Library Public Services, 5th ed. (Englewood, Colorado : Libraries Unlimited, 1992)


Ranganathan's Five Laws Of Library Science
S. R. Ranganathan was a famous librarian from India, who stated that there were five laws of library science.

1. Books are for use.
   This is a reminder that the purpose of a library is to provide access to information. If our rules and procedures hinder rather than promote the use of the collection, then we should take a serious look at our policies.


2. Every person his or her book.
   Each published item will reach at least one person. Libraries have collection development policies which include statements such as "Freedom to Read" highlighting that the library does not condone censorship.


3. Every book its reader.
   The fact that an item does not circulate is not necessarily indicative that no one will ever use it. Perhaps it would be useful in another library's collection. Perhaps it has not been catalogued properly or promoted effectively.


4. Save the time of the reader.
   Libraries must be effective and efficient in providing a service or information to a patron when he/she requires it. Catalogues must be easy to use and lead people to appropriate resources. Libraries now need to provide links to important Internet sites either through their own Website or through the online public access catalogue.


5. A library is a growing organism.
   Perhaps the most important thing to remember about libraries is that they are not stactic. Services change over time. New technologies can improve access to information. The service population of the library may change and therefore different types of materials are required. For example, in cities with large immigrant populations, the collections in public libraries will reflect the heritage language of these new Canadians, to encourage their use of the library.

Ranganathan,S. R., The Five Laws of Library Science. (Madras, India: Madras Library Association, 1931)

Crawford and Gorman's Five Laws for the Future
Although Ranganathan's rules are timeless, Walt Crawford and Michael Gorman felt that they needed updating to reflect today's terminology and the increased scope of services in modern libraries. In 1995, they published these in a book, Five Laws for the Future.

1. Libraries serve humanity.
This law reminds us that libraries provide services. In most libraries other than those in corporations or government agencies, these services are for large populations, not select groups or individuals. Library staff must always put the needs of its clientele first and foremost.

2. Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated.
It is hard to resist the temptations of the glitzy World Wide Web with its timely access to information. After all, everything is on the Internet, right? WRONG! Thus, one can waste a lot of time searching the Internet when this information may be readily available elsewhere. One real-life example of this occurred in a medical library where a patron had searched for hours on the Internet to locate an address, when the librarian was able to find it within two minutes in a print-based directory. Remember that radio did not replace newspapers, televisoin did not replace the radio, nor will the Internet replace print resources.

3. Use technology to enhance service.
Countless are the times library staff rush out to acquire an integrated automated system without first asking the important question, "How will this new technology improve services to our clients?" If you keep this focus, chances are the best system meeting your specific library's needs will be chosen. It will also gain acceptance by the patrons when you emphasize how the new technology will benefit them rather than how it will help the library staff. Of course technology must also assist the library staff to provide services in an efficient and timely manner.

4. Protect free access to knowledge that includes both current and past information.
The concept of free access to information is a fundamental one in democractic societies. Certain types of libraries (academic, research and large public libraries) have a fundamental role in preserving older materials. Failing to undertake this mandate results in a form of censorship. Libraries also need to resist the pressure of patrons demanding materials be taken off the shelf for political, religious, or ethnic reasons.

5. Honour the past and create a future.
Crawford and Gorman state in order to do this we must be receptive to new innovations. However, we must not become technology-driven. These innovations must be seen as tools to be used to provide essential services. Consider the statement, "Let us mourn the card catalogue." It is important to acknowledge that the card catalogue was a brilliant innovation for its time and served libraries well for many years. Modern online public access catalogues were built upon and enhanced the foundations of access to information.

Crawford, Walt & Gorman, Michael., Future Libraries: Dreams, Madness and Reality. (Chicago: American Library Association, 1995.)

When the word, library, is mentioned, most people immediately think of books. Is that the only type of material that libraries have in their collections?

Media formats
Libraries now provide access to a wide variety of media formats. Although there may be many ways to classify information sources, there are five commonly used categories:
1. Print resources;
2. Microform resources;
3. Graphic resources;
4. Audiovisual resources;
5. Electronic resources.

Print resources
Print resources are the most familiar information source types. They include books, magazines, pamphlets and government documents.

Books
Most are familiar with books, but many may not be able to quickly define what a book is nor identify all the parts of the book.

Book: Collection of more than 48 pages with a distinctive title and fastened together in a binding.

Monograph: Complete bibliographic unit on a particular subject. In cataloguing, a monograph is any printed item, which is not a serial. Thus not all books are monographs because some books are serials, like almanacs and yearbooks, and monographs are not serials. Many monographs (such as those in pamphlet form) are not books.

Series: A number of monographs related in subject or form most often issued by the same publisher with a collective series title.

Physical parts of a book


Some books may not have all the bibliographic parts described, nor would the parts necessarily follow the same order given.

Book jacket or dust jacket: The paper cover folded loosely over a bound book. Publishers design colourful and eye-catching jackets to attract the attention of potential purchasers. Jackets are often informative, giving a brief description of the content of the book and a biographical sketch of the author. It may contain excerpts from book reviews or descriptions of other books written by the same author. The information assists library patrons in deciding whether or not to borrow an item, so they keep the jacket protecting it with plastic and taping it to the book cover.

Cover: This is the binding that holds the leaves of a book together and protects them. A hard cover is made of heavy cardboard that is covered with cloth or leather. The cover has three parts - front, back and spine.

Types of bindings: Covers can be in various types of bindings, such as:

Trade binding: Binding intended for sale in bookstores, usually hardcover.

Library binding: Sturdier and expensive binding. Pages are stitched together before being glued into
the book cover. Many libraries no longer request library binding unless they expect heavy use of an item because of its expense.

Adhesive binding: Binding used in producing paperback books where the cover and leaves are merely glued together.

Spiral binding: A mechanical binding using plastic or metal material to bind the pages. Often used for handbooks or manuals as the spiral binding allows the book to lie flat. Heavy use however results in pages loosening themselves, requiring the entire item to be rebound.

Permabounding style binding: A technique of fusing a heavy plastic material to the cover of a paperback book to make it more durable.

Spine: The part of the book which holds the front and back covers together. Publishers usually put the book title, author's name and their name on the spine.

Hinge or joint: The area that joins the front or back cover to the spine. The hinge endures much stress and is often the first area of the book to wearout.

Endpapers: Heavy lining papers inside the front and back book covers. They extend from the edge of the cover of the book across to the edge of the pages of the book. The pastedown is that part of the endpaper which is pasted to the inside board of the cover. The flyleaf is the loose portion of the endpaper that covers the book leaves.

Leaf: One sheet of paper consisting of two pages, one on each side. The 'front' of each leaf, or the right hand page of an open book, is called the recto. The 'back' of each leaf, or the left-hand page of an open book, is called the verso.

Signature: A folded printed page. The text of a book is printed on large sheets of paper, which are then folded and the edges cut to make pages. Signatures are often numbered or lettered so that they will be put in proper order. When signatures are sewn to one another, they make up the printed book. The following are terms used to describe signature types:
Folio: sheet folded once to make 2 leaves or 4 pages
Quarto: sheet folded twice to make 4 leaves or 8 pages
Octavo: sheet folded three times to make 8 leaves or 16 pages. The most commonly used signature.

Bibliographic parts of a book

When you look up materials in a library catalogue, the description of each item is called a bibliographic record. Cataloguers create bibliographic records by following standard rules, known as the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, or AACR. This set of rules was in its second revised edition in 2002 and is often referred to as AACR2R. AACR2R instructs cataloguers to use information in specific areas of books to create the bibliographic record. These areas are known as bibliographic parts of a book.

Preliminary pages: Precedes the book's body. Usually numbered with small Roman numerals to distinguish them from the book's major content.

Half-title page: Leaf preceding the title page, giving the book's brief title and series title, serves as title page's protection.

Frontispiece: Precedes the title page, an illustration relating to the book's subject matter.

Title page: Most important information source to a cataloguer. Includes title, subtitle, statement of responsibility, edition, imprint and series.

Preliminary pages: Title page

Title: Name of work.

Subtitle: Secondary title claryfing or explaining main title. Often in smaller print or separated by punctuation.

Statement of responsibility: Usually includes author's name and other individuals or agencies - editors, illustrators, translators or issuing agencies (an association or government agency) that have contributed in a significant way to the intellectual or artistic content of the work.

Edition: copies of the same work printed from the same type setting, eg., 3rd ed., New ed., Rev ed.

Imprint: generally appears at the bottom of the title page. Often includes the place of publication, publisher's name, and publication date.

Verso of the title page: Reverse side of title page. Usually contains the copyright date, printing history, Cataloguing-in-Publication (CIP) data, and ISBN and may also include restrictions on photocopying, or the type of typeface or paper used.

Copyright date: usually found on the verso of the title page, indicated by the symbol © and may include the name of the copyright owner. In Canada, copyright is the legal right given to a person or organization to the exclusive ownership of a work's content for the author's lifetime plus an additional 50 years. If substantial changes are made to a work's content before it is reprinted, it is considered to be a new edition and is given a new copyright date. Copyright dates are an excellent indicator of how current the book's content is.

Printing history: may also be given on the verso of the title page. The publisher, in this instance, indicates how many tumes the book has been reprinted from the same type setting, for example Seventh printing 1991,©1971.

Cataloguing-In-Publication (CIP): brief bibliographic record produced in card catalogue format. Before items are published, publishers participating in the CIP program submit their galley proofs and/or descriptive front matter to the National Library of Canada, the Library of Congress in the United States, or their designated agents. Cataloguers then prepare a bibliographic record and send a copy of this record back to the publisher so that it may be added to the title page's verso at publication time. CIP reduces cataloguing costs and speeds the access to new materials in libraries. It is important to note any changes made after the galley proofs are submitted may not be reflected in the data.

International Standard Book Number: Regardless of the country in which a book is published, each book receives a unique ten-digit ISBN. The number identifies a specific title, binding and edition of a work published by a particular publisher. If a publisher publishes a hardcover and paperback edition of the same work, each edition would receive a separate ISBN. The numbering system is a standard internationally controlled by the international ISBN agency in Berlin, Germany. It began in 1969 as a method to improve speedy access and management of the increasing number of published materials. The agency adminstering the ISBN program determines how large a block of ISBNs to assign each publisher and provides them with log books to assist them in keeping accurate records of which number has been assigned to each title.

Dedication: Usually printed on the first leaf following a work's title page. Statement thanking or honoring individuals, relatives or friends.

Preface: Short note by the author stating the work's purpose or origin. Author writes directly to reader in a personal manner often stating reasons why the book was written. At the end of the preface the author may identify those who assisted him or her in writing the book, referred to as acknowledgements.

Table of Contents: Lists the chapters of books in order, giving the beginning page number of each chapter or section. Gives information about the work's scope and the amount of material related to each topic.

List of Illustrative Matter: Key to illustrations, photos, other graphic material may be found in the work. Usually follows table of contents.

Introduction: Specifies what the book is about and how the author intends to approach the subject. May be written by another field expert or editor.

Body or text: Includes all numbered chapters in the work. Pages most likely numbered with Arabic numerals.

Supplementary material: follows work's text and may include an appendix, bibliography, glossary, notes and index.

Appendix: may contain material referred to, but not explained in the text or the full text of a document referred to in the text.

Bibliography: list of materials used by the author in researching the book or a list of recommended readings. Lends authority to work and assist others researching the same same subject.

Glossary: Lists and defines specialized terms used in text.

Notes: Explains particular passages in the text or provide bibliographic information about quotations or sources listed. Notes may be found at the end of each chapter or the text. If notes appear at the bottom of the same page, they are referred to as footnotes. When passages or quotes require an explanation or further bibliographic information, they are identifed by the use of superscript numbers. The number refers the reader to the note with the corresponding number. If notes are infrequent in number they may be identified by an asterisk or another symbol.

Index: An alphabetical list of names, places and subjects covered in the work. Each item is followed by a page number or numbers where it appears in the text. Broader topics may have further subdivisions and there may also be cross-references to similiar terms. In some works, there are separate indexes for names and topics.

Colophon: Inscription placed at the end of the book by the printer, containing facts about the production, author, date of publication and title, but the title page and verso are now more likely to contain this information. Unique features, such as special typeface, paper quality, or binding however are usually highlighted here.

Serials: A serial is a publication issued in successive parts, at regular or irregular intervals, to be continued. Serials are also known as magazines, usually considred popular in nature, whereas journals are more scholarly. In libraries, the official term for this type of serial is periodical. Serials also include newspapers, annuals and yearbooks, proceedings, newsletters and any publication meant to be published on a continuing basis. Information in serials is current and is often aimed at a particular audience.

Periodicals: Most periodicals are issued on a regular basis, such as weekly, monthly, quarterly, biweekly or bimonthly. Issues are numbered or dated or both. As an example, the cover of Canadian Gardening states that it is the "August/September 1997" issue. If you were to look at the page listing the publisher's address and phone number (known as the masthead), you would notice that it is Vol. 8 no. 5. August/September 1997. One volume of Canadian Gardening is comprised of seven issues in a given calendar year. The first issue of a periodical can be at any time of year. Quarterly periodicals may be identified by month and year or by season. Like books, each periodical title has a unique International Standard Serial Number (ISSN). ISSNs are managed and controlled in the same manner as ISBNs. Some periodicals have continous paging throughout the whole volume. Issue 2 might begin with page 150. Others have each issue beginning with page 1.

Working with periodicals can be confusing. Some publishers do not produce issues of their periodicals during the summer months, so a monthly periodical may actually only have 10 issues per year. Other publishers seem determined to continually change the names of their serials. For example, in the mid-1980's, two American engineering societies changed the title of every periodical they published (between twenty to thirty titles in total). In one instance, all that was changed was the removal of the words 'the' and 'division' from each title. This seemingly small change resulted in many libraries having to dramatically shift periodical collections to keep their periodicals in alphabetical order.

With the growing popularity of the Internet and increasing costs of print publishing, more and more periodicals are being offered online. An example of a print periodical that is also offered online is School Library Journal (SLJ) at http://www.slj.com An example of a periodical that is offered exclusively online is CM (also known as the Canadian Review of Materials). See the Website at http://www.umanitoba.ca/cm Both of these electronic periodicals are among the few of high quality which are also accessible at no cost to the user. Many others are only accessible to subscribers at significant costs.

Newspapers: The newspaper is another common type of serial. Larger city newspapers are issued on daily basis; smaller community papers may appear weekly or less frequently. The content and format of newspapers are what distingush them from a periodical.

Proceedings, Reports & Annuals: Proceedings and reports are more likely to be published on an irregular basis. Annuals, as their name suggests, are serials published once a year.

Pamphlets: A pamphlet is a printed publication of 48 pages or fewer, bound in paper covers.
We've all seen pamphlets in travel agencies, doctors' or dentists' offices, or in our local banks. They are usually free of charge and provide information about a specific service or topic. Pamphlets are extremely useful to have in libraries. For example, a pamphlet written by the Canadian Diabetes Association about issulin would be far easier for a member of the general public to read than a medical text.
Most libraries store pamphlets in special boxes called Princeton files or folders in a file cabinet. Often pamphlets are stored with newspaper clippings, photos and pictures and these collections in file cabinets ar known in the library world as "vertical files".

Government documents: To be classed a government document a publication must have its origins from, be authored by, or published by a government or one of its agencies. Because of the massive number of publications and the way they are listed in government bibliographies or publication catalogues, libraries with large government documents collections shelve them in a separate area, arranging them by the name of the issuing agency. Government documents are viewed as reliable and authorative sources of current information on a wide variety of topics.

Theses & Dissertations: Academic and research libraries collect theses and dissertations. A dissertion is research performed and written up as one of the requirements for a doctoral degree (Ph.D.) at a University. A thesis is research performed and written up as one of the requirements for a master's degree. Most academic libraries have one copy of each dissertation and thesis written by graduate students at that particular university.

Archives: Archives contain collections of unpublished and published materials that have special historical value. Great emphasis is placed on preserving the materials and climate and temperature control and proper storage are extremely important. Even the smallest public library may have an archival collection containing the papers of a notable person in the community or historical publications of interest to the community.

Microform resources: Microform resourcfes are printed text, which has been reduced in size after being photographed. In order to read the text, a special machine with a magnifying glass must be used.
Microforms are produced in two formats:
Microfilm: rolls of 35mm or 70mm film
Microfiche: 4" x 6" flat sheet of film
The machines to read microfilm or fiche are called "readers". Some readers have special attachments to allow both microfilm and microfiche to be read. Reader-printers also allow print copies to be made of the magnified text.
On microfilm, micro-photo images of pages are placed one after another. In order to read a specific passage with the text you must advance the film forwards or backwards. Micro-photo images are arranged in several rows on a piece of microfiche (also known as a grid). A standard microfiche can contain between 60-100 images. An ultrafiche can contain between 1,000 and 3,000 images. The row of images or pages may be lettered and each image numbered, to provide an index for easy access.
Although this medium has never been popular with library users, many libraries replace older harder copy issues of periodicals and newspapers with microform. Not only does microform take up less storage space, but it is also an excellent way to provide access to historical materials, which might otherwise by unavailable or would deterioate from repeated use. A student studying the history of Manitoba is able to read newspaper coverage of historical events as they occurred, by consulting older issues of newspapers on microform.
Another early use of microform in libraries was to replace the card catalogue with a COM (computer output microform) catalogue.

Graphic resources:
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional items are called graphic resources. These are primarily visual reprensentations of concepts rather than text.

Two-dimensional graphic formats:
As you can imagine, these materials come in a wide variety of sizes and can easily be damaged. LIbraries take special care in handling and processing these materials and often purchase special equipment and shelving for storing two-dimensional materials.

Three-dimensional graphic formats:
In order to be classed as three-dimensional, an item must have depth, width and height and exist independently from other items.

Globe:
A globe is a spherical map representing the surface of a celestial body, such as Earth. The copyright date of globes, which represent political boundaries and names of countries, is important. This information can become dated and the globe will need to be replaced with a more recent edition.

Model:
A model is a representation showing the construction or appearance of something. A type of model most may be familiar with is a model train, complet with villages, mountain tunnels and track switches. A model is often not the same size as the original item. For example, a model of the structure of a chemical substance is greatly magnified in size, whereas a model of Lower Fort Garry would be greatly reduced in scale. Models are excellent teaching aids and consequently, many school libraries have them in their collection.

Diorama:
A diorama is a creation of a realistic scene by placing objects in front of a painted or photographic background. Museums often have stuffed wildlife specimens placed in dioramas to give visitors a better sense of their habitat.

Realia:
Realia are actual objects rather than the model representation of those objects. For example, an architecture or interior design library might have a collection of fabric samples to assist designers in choosing appropriate upholstery for a given project. An agricultural research library might have slide specimens of different varieties of weeds. A school library may have a display of different types of rock specimens.

Games, puzzles & toys:
Although everyone may be familiar with them, it may not be evident why libraries would have games, puzzles, and toys in their collections. Educational games can assist children in learning to spell, count, add and subtract, and in developing critical thinking skills. The Society for Manitobans with Disabilities has a large collection of toys. Parents with children with disabilities may borrow these toys to assist their children in developing motor skills.

Media formats:
Audiovisual resources:
Audiovisual resouces can only be heard or seen when played on specialized equipment. Technology has rapidly changed over the years. In the 1970's, libraries collected long-playing (LPs), tapes, motion pictures (films) and filmstrips. In the 1980's, videotapes began replacing motion pictures and compact discs (CDs) began to replace LPs. In the 1990's, videodics, interactive video and interactive CDs also became available.

Many of these resources require expensive equipment. Libraries now face the challenge of providing access to an increasing variety of audiovisual materials available and to stay within declining budgets. To further complicate matters, some excellent sources of information have not been reformatted to newer technology. As older equipment breaks down and cannot be replaced, valuable information is lost.

Records:
Records are phonorecordings of music, poetry readings, speeches, drama and other audible communication, which are mostly found on vinyl discs.

Audiotapes:
Audiotapes are produced when sound is recorded onto magnetic tape stored on reels. A large machine is required to wind the tape from one reel to a take up reel.

Audiocassettes:
With audiocassettes, sound is still recorded onto magnetic tape like audiotapes, but the reels are much smaller than audiotapes and they are encased in a plastic cassette. The equipment needed to play the cassettes is smaller and portable. Many libraries not only collect music recordings on audio cassettes, but also purchase "Books on Tape" or "Talking Books" for the visually impaired or for individuals who want to listen to books being read to them while they are commuting or jogging. Children's books may now be accompanied by a cassette of the book read by the author or a storyteller.

Compact discs:
Introduced in 1983, compact discs consist of sound digitally recorded onto a plastic dusc, 4.75" in diameter. The player has a laser beam, which shines on the disc and translates the encoded data into sound. Because the sound is recorded digitally, background noise or distortions are eliminated. CDs are also more durable than records, which can easily be scratched either by improper handling or by the needle on the arm of a turntable. However, while they may be an improvement over vinyl records, compact discs are far from being "practically indestructible". They may be able to withstand more abuse than vinyl records, but they are still susectiple to scratches, smudges and dirt which can severly affect their performance.

Film resources:
Slides:
Slides are pieces of film mounted in a 2" x 2" cardboard or plastic envelope. These are placed into trays, which are then placed on a projector. Inside the projector is a lamp and reflecting device, which projects the image onto a screen. Libraries, which emphasizes collection development in art and architecture, will most likely have a large slide collection. Slides become fragile with age and may eventually be transferred to videodiscs in the future.

Filmstrips:
Filmstrips are rolls of 35mm of film of approximately 40-65 frames. School libraries had large collections of filmstrips, many of which were accompanied by audiocassettes and pamphlets in kits. Although videos are much more popular, some filmstrips are still in use and found in school libraries' collections.

Motion pictures:
There are at least four different formats of motion pictures: 70 mm, 35 mm, 16 mm, and 8 mm. Early motion pictures had no sound and were filmed in black and white. Later films had sound and were filmed in colour. Motion pictures were often expensive to buy and thus, were often not owned by individual libraries, but by central agencies such as Public Library Services and the Instructional Resources Unit of the Manitoba Department of Education, Training and Youth. Such agencies distributed motion pictures to libraries upon the request of their clients. Motion pictures can deterioate quickly, due to the method of being fed by sprockets through a movie projector. Videos have become more popular because of their ease of use and cost. However, certain quality motion pictures have not been transferred to video, so some libraries still have films and film projectors in their collections.

Videotapes:
Videotapes consist of images and sound magnetically recorded onto a standard tape one-half inch in width. The tape, like the audiocassette, is mounted on small reels and cased in a plastic cassette. The tape is viewed by placing the cassette into a videocassette recorder (VCR) which is connected by a cable to a television screen or to a data video projector. A data video projector projects the image onto a screen for viewing by larger audiences. Videotapes are much easier to use than motion pictures and are more durable. They also cost less and cover a larger variety of topics than motion pictures. For example there are more self-improvement videos available than there were motion pictures.

Videodiscs:
Like CDs, videodiscs are recorded digitally onto plastic discs ranging from 3" to 14" in diameter. Like videotapes, they are viewed by placing the disc into a disc reader, which is connected to a television screen or data video projector. The disc reader shines a laser beam onto the disc and translates the coding to images and sounds. The sound and image quality of videodiscs is higher than that of videotapes. Videodiscs are also more durable than videotapes.
The real advantage of videodiscs is the ability to access specific parts of the disc (random-access retrieval). Each frame is numbered and can be accessed by entering the number on the pad of a remote control device similar to the kind we use with our televisions at home. There may be an index to allow the viewer to go directly to a specific chapter or topic. Some workbooks included with videodics have barcodes, representing frame numbers, beside index enteries or chapter headings. When the barcode is swiped with a light pen connected to the reader, the reader interprets the barcode, searches for the frame number specified and projects that image and sound on the screen. This is far easier than fast-forwarding or rewinding videotapes to show a portion of the tape rather than view it from beginning to end. Unfortunately, videodiscs and the equipment related to view them are still very expensive and are primarily used in educational institutuions.

Electronic resources
This category includes magnetic tape, floppy disks, CD-ROMs, hard-drives, networks (including the Internet), remote databases and in-house databases.
With recent advances in computer technology, we are now able to generate, store and transmit massive amounts of information at very low cost. The development of graphical user interface (GUI) technology that is using icons (pictorial representations of concepts) and a mouse to point and click, rather than requiring people to type in commands, have made computers more user-friendly.
Publishers now often produce books with accompanying software on either floppy discs or CD-ROM. Encyclopaedias are available in print, or on CD-ROM, or are even available over the Internet. Many new serial titles are now only available in electronic format. Consequently, the public expects to be able to access electronic sources of information in their libraries.

Magnetic tape
A magnetic tape is specially treated with a substance to allow it to be used to store computer data rather than image or sound. Magnetic tape is stored on large reels. In PC environments, it is more often enclosed in a smaller type of cassette that is run on a tape drive installed on personal computers. This permits a convenient back-up of computer files which are then kept off-premises for safe-keeping.

Hard-drive
A hard-drive is a memory storage device within a microcomputer. Originally a hard-drive had relatively limited storage capacity. Now the capacity of memory and storage of hard drives are measured in gigabytes (billions of bytes).

Floppy disks
Floppy disks measuring 5.75" (older technology) or 3.5" (more common) store commercially available software programs. Libraries will often purchase software for use by their patrons. Many educational software packages are available and school, university and college libraries purchase them for use by teachers, professors and students. However, floppy disks are gradually being replaced by CD-ROMs since software is becoming more complicated and requires more memory. One CD-ROM can store the information contained on many floppies.

CD-ROMs
CD-ROMs are used to store images and text as well as sound. One CD-ROM can hold up to 260,000 pages of text. Libraries are increasingly purchasing CD-ROM resources, as they take up less storage space, and can be networked enabling many library users to access the information at the same time. Encyclopedias on CD-ROM are extremely popular with children.

Library networks
Libraries now make resources, such as their on-line catalogues or access to the Internet available over local area networks. A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers connected by communication links, which allow them to interact with one another. LANs are usually understood to be contained within one building, or at most within a few buildings in close proximity to each other, such as a university campus. In a university setting, if student residents are wired for the local area network, a student is able to consult the library's catalogue or search a networked CD-ROM or surf the Internet at any time of day or night in the comfort of his or her own room.

A wide area network (WAN) is similar to a LAN except on a much wider scale. The computers in a WAN are connected over a wider area, such as the online catalogues of a regional public library system or the Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information's network across Canada. Of course, the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

In-house databases
In-house databases are comprised of many electronic records which are produced, used and maintained by an organization for its own purposes. An association might store the names and addresses of its members on a computer. The name and address of each member would be an electronic record. The file containing the records of all the members' names and addresses would be the membership database. A library's on-line catalogue is an example of a bibliographic database comprised of electronic bibliographic records. A library's online catalogue is also an example of an in-house database as it is created by the library itself to describe what items the library has in its collections. The Great Library in the Manitoba Department of Justice created an in-house database containing references to judgements in Manitoba courts, which have not been included in commercially produced legal reporting services. This database is accessible over the Justice Department's local area network.

Remote databases
Libraries often provide access to databaes housed on other computers outside the local area network. These are known as remote databases. Periodical indexes, in electronic form, which are made available via a telecommunications link, are examples of a remote database.

Internet
Last but definitely not least is the massive amount of information available on the Internet. The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. Institiutions allow other institiutions or anyone having an account with an Internet provider, such as Sympatico, to access information on their network. Of course, this access is limited. For example, confidential employee records would not be made available to unauthorized personnel. In future courses, you will be learning how the Internet can be used to find bibliographic records for materials, answer library clients' questions and much more. The only real difficulties with using the Internet are that it can be like finding a needle in a haystack and depending on the Internet provider, it may take some time to receive a response to your request at peak periods of the day.

More apologies!

Still crazy busy ...

But I must remind myself that I never really set off to make myself blog every day. And I have been so busy with everything else that I haven't even had the chance to even log in for almost a month. However, that should give me more to work with in later posts.

I think after so long I have finally decided how to tackle my blog posts on my college courses. However, I have to actually make the time to do so. Perhaps this should just be a weekend project? I must have time at some point.

On a somewhat related note, this week's episode of Doctor Who is entitled Silence in the library. How about that for an interesting tie-in for two of my interests?!