Write Procedures That Work

WE WRITE PROCEDURES because we want people to follow them. Unfortunately, many procedures are so poorly written that no one can follow them. A classic case of a poorly worded, overly condensed instruction is this puzzling sign, placed next to the elevators in a high-rise building: 

Some thought this is a magic formula, others thought that the elevator did not stop at every floor. In reality, this “simple” instruction meant to suggest that if those did not have far to go should take the stairs rather than tie up the elevator. (Chapanis, Alphonse, “Words, Words, Words,” Human Factors, No. 7, 1965, p. 1-17) 

Written procedures are a necessary part of library work. Complex operations must be performed by a variety of workers, many of whom are part time. Rapid turnover of part-time workers means that the training of new employees can take up a great deal of time. 

Library literature does not give guidance for the constantly recurring task of writing procedures manuals. However, there are professionals who make a career of this kind of writing and we can borrow some of their principles to make library procedures more useful. 

Words are primary
The tools of written communication are words, illustrations, typography and format. Librarians may be particularly prone to rely on words alone and need to be aware of the importance of illustrations and typography/format. 

Nevertheless, words do come first. The terminology and vocabulary used in procedure writing should be consistent. This is not the place for creativity or the use of synonyms. Terms should be consistent not only within a set of instructions but with regard to labels on equipment and supplies referred to within the text. 

State instructions in the shortest, simplest words possible so that they can be understood by all users. One writer confused his audience with “WARNING: The batteries in the AN/MSQ-55 could be a lethal source of electrical power under certain conditions.” The men using the equipment had written the words “LOOK OUT! THIS CAN KILL YOU!” on a piece of paper and placed it right next to the equipment. (Chapanis) The simplest words are best. For example:

PREFER	TO
show	demonstrate
try	endeavour
use	utilize
now	at this point of time
can	will be able to

Although you should use the terminology appropriate to your discipline, avoid unnecessary jargon. Define the terms you use if they are not commonly known.

Use positive language. Negative statements frequently require interpretation and mental rephrasing. “Do not leave lights on at night” is less clear than “Turn off lights when you leave.” Save your negatives for warnings.

Indirect orders are also difficult to interpret. Figure 1 shows the contrast between a procedure written in indirect order and then in direct order. 

Use simple, direct sentence structure. Procedures are written in second person imperative voice. This means that they are commands, not suggestions. Often procedures include the word “should”. This unnecessary word involves the use of a phrase that lengthens and clutters the procedure. Compare the two phrases in Figure 2.

Often unnecessary words have also been eliminated in the second phrase. The “you” is implied, not stated. A symbol for “Return” is used consistently throughout and explained at the beginning of the procedure.

A picture is worth…
Illustrations and examples can replace or amplify words, but are seldom seen in library procedures. As people have become more visually oriented, they may be able to understand a procedure better from a line drawing, a photograph, a flow chart, or a screen simulation (Southard, Sherry G. “Usable Instructions Based on Research and Theory: Part 1,” Technical Communications, No. 35, 1988, p. 173-178.). It is much easier to provide a printout of an OCLC serials record, with the pertinent fields labeled, than it is to try to explain what one looks like. Good examples of this type of illustration can be seen in reference books, where a sample citation is provided.

All figures, tables, graphs, and illustrations used should be labeled and referenced in the text. Any of these used for more than one operation can be produced once and referenced. However, it is always better to have illustrations as close to the relevant text as possible and to repeat them wherever needed (Walton, Thomas F. Technical Writing and Administration. McGraw, 1968).

Creating a visual effect
An element of procedures fully as important as words and sentence structure is format and typography. Formatting and typography create a visual effect and make employees willing, even eager, to use procedures. (Southard, Sherry G. “Practical Considerations in Formatting Manuals,” Technical Communications, No. 35, 1988, p. 173-178)

When referring to format, the term “white space” is frequently used. Both vertical (indentation) and horizontal (space between steps) white space is of the greatest importance. Frequently, procedures written in libraries with tight budgets attempt to save paper by eliminating the use of white space. If procedures are produced that are not used, not only is the paper and ribbon used to produce them wasted, the time of the writer is wasted as well. Moreover, the nonuse of procedures may result in errors by the employee, an even graver waste of funds.

White space indicates where ideas begin and end. It gives an opportunity to rest the eyes and brain. It provides space to write, take notes, and draw sketches. Vertical white space indicates organization and subordination. Research indicates that all these elements make a procedure easier to understand and use. (Southard, Sherry G. “Practical Considerations in Formatting Manuals,” Technical Communications, No. 35, 1988, p. 173-178).

Most procedures writers use numbering, but subordinate numbering can be used to greater effect, providing spatial location cues. This can affect the ability to return to information. (Frase, Lawrence T. & Barry J. Schwartz, “Typographical Cues That Facilitate Comprehension,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 71, No. 2, 1979, p. 197-206.) At the lowest level of subordination, bullets can be used with good effect.

Another spatial location cue is headings. These should be brief but descriptive. Good use of headings enables the user to skip the material not needed. It should be possible to scan the headings and see what is being accomplished by the procedure. (Walton)

As with vocabulary, consistency is important in format. Headings, indentations, and other visual cues should mean the same thing whenever they are used. Segmentation of text into meaningful components affect both initial understanding and recall, but inefficient formats embody few cues to the meaningful components of a text. (Frase & Schwartz.)

Compare the examples in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Both give the same information, the first in a format typically used in library procedures. In the second, white space, subordinate numbering, and headings are used to give visual cues. A list of materials needed is supplied at the beginning and an illustration is included.

Figure 3
Receiving Books from a Major Vendor

1. Open the box and remove the invoice. The books will be listed on the invoice in alphabetical order by title. Remove each book and check it against the order slip. The following items should match exactly: author, title, publisher, edition, year. If these items do not match, set the books aside for your supervisor. Highlight on the order slip the nonmatching items.


2. If everything matches, stamp on the back of the order slip the date received and place the order slip in back of the title page so that the end with the purchase order number on it is visible.


3. Find the title on the invoice. Check that the purchase order number is the same and the price is the same or less than the amount on the purchase order.


4. If there is a typographical error in the purchase order number on the invoice, cross it out and write in the correct number. If the number is completely different, set the book aside for your supervisor.


5. If the price on the invoice is higher than the price on the purchase order, look to see if there is a price authorization card in the book. Attach it to the invoice.


6. If there is no price authorization card, refer to the chart of acceptable price increases taped to the receiving table. If the price increase falls within the acceptable range, proceed to the next step. If it does not, set the book aside for your supervisor.

Figure 4
Receiving Books from a Major Vendor

Materials needed
Empty book truck
Box opener
Date stamp on today's date
Stamp pad
Pencil
Post-it note pad
Highlighter

PROCEDURE

1. Open box, remove invoice, and set aside. An order slip will be inside each book at the title page.

2. Remove each book and check it against the order slip and the invoice.

a. Compare the book to the information on the order slip of the book. The following items should match exactly (see Figure 1).
* Author
* Title
* Publisher
* Edition
* Year

** If these items do not match, set the book aside for your supervisor. Highlight on the order slip the nonmatching items.

b. Turn the order slip over as if it were a check, and stamp the date at the top where you would endorse the check.

c. Place the order slip in the back of the title page so that the end with the purchase order on it is visible.

d. Titles are listed on the invoice alphabetically. Find the title on the invoice. Check that
* the Purchase Order Number is the same
* the price is the same or less than the amount on the purchase order

* If there is a typographical error in the purchase order number on the invoice, cross it out and write in the correct number. If the number is completely different, set the book aside for your supervisor. Attach a Post-it™ note explaining the problem.

* If the price on the invoice is higher than the price on the purchase order, look to see if there is a price increase authorization card in the book. Attach it to the invoice.

* If there is no price authorization card, refer to the chart of acceptable price increases taped to the receiving table. If the price increase falls within the acceptable range, proceed to the next step. If it does not, set the book aside for your supervisor.

Typographical reinforcement
Procedures can be made even more usable by the effective use of typographical aids such as capital letters, underlining, boldface, and italics. These techniques direct attention to especially important information, such as warnings, or new terms used for the first time. It is important to remember that the overuse of such techniques “produces instructions in which nothing seems important or distinct, and using too many different techniques produces documents that look cluttered. Inconsistent use of highlighting confuses readers.” (Southard, “Practical Considerations…”) Capitalization is effective when limited to two or three words. Longer text in all caps is difficult to read because the uniform shape of the words give no typographical cues. Similarly, long passages that are underlined or in italics are difficult to read.

A final visual aid that can be used to good effect is a box. A box is most effective when used for a caution or warning. In library work, we do not often have procedures to follow that are physically dangerous, but staff these days often are in a position to damage or line files. If boxes are used exclusively for warnings and cautions, they are more likely to be noticed and heeded.

Legibility in procedures is of the greatest importance. Once you have used appropriate vocabulary and syntax, paid attention to formatting and typographical aids, and added visuals aids, complete the job by using a good printer and new ribbon.

Remember your audience
If a procedure is to be used in training new employees, it is most useful to write the procedure for problem-free application. If 95 percent of the patrons at the circulation desk will have current IDs that entitle them to check out books, and 95 percent of the books will have circulation cards in them, write the procedure for those times when things will go as they should. Write an addendum that lists common problems that will arise and how to deal with them.

For problems that occur infrequently, or that require decision-making at the policy level, simply instruct the employee to consult a supervisor. Too many procedures try to outline the steps to be followed in every remote eventuality. They become so long and convoluted that it seems impossible to find the steps to follow in a routine situation.

For example, staff doing copy cataloging should not have to wade through masses of material intended for staff and librarians responsible for complex editing of substandard records and original cataloguing. Such procedures are really several procedures combined into one.

A procedure that frequently includes the word “if” may be a combination of more than one procedure, or an attempt to write a procedure for a level of professional decision-making that is too complex for a procedure. You may find that your task is made easier if you write your task for the trouble-free, most usual way of doing the task, and then write a separate series of guidelines for higher level staff to use when making decisions in problem situations.

Watch your step
A person should be able to follow a written procedure step by step without backing up or paging back and forth. In almost all cases, this means that chronological order will be followed, although occasionally it will make more sense to go from the general to the specific. It is extremely frustrating to get to Step 7 in a procedure and discover that there was something you should have done in Step 4 that wasn’t mention there.

Also to be avoided are “rightist” connotations—or procedures written for the right-handed. It is a good idea to have the procedure reviewed by a lefty if the writer is a righty, and vice versa, for there may be steps in the procedure that are not immediately apparent as creating difficulty.

Writing the procedure
As one expert on technical writing has outlined the writing of procedures:
Rather than starting with words, we need to start by asking what specific human actions we want to result from a set of instructions, and in what order we want these actions to occur. Then we need to compose the instructions piece by piece so that they will produce those actions in the correct order. (Chapanis)

• Gather information: In order to write a procedure, you need to be thoroughly familiar with it yourself. Don’t sit at your desk and attempt to remember how the operation is done. Do it and write down each step as you do it. If it is a procedure that you aren’t thoroughly familiar with, shadow a person doing it, write down what they do, and ask questions as they proceed. Especially be sure to ask what to do at each step if it fails. 

• List tools: At the top of the procedure, list the tools, equipment, and material needed. This follows the model of a sewing pattern; one of the best examples of well-written procedures. 

• Write: First write the procedure in direct order for a problem-free session. 

• Add instructions: Then add instructions for exceptions and problems, using indentation and typographical cues. Be sure at this point that you do not begin combining procedures. 

• Test and evaluate: Have someone follow the procedure while you shadow. Have the user vocalize each step as it is done so that you can follow thought processes and misinterpretations. Two questions to answer during evaluation are:  

• Can the instructions be followed?
• Can the user find a particular piece of information when needed? (Gillihan, Dana & Jennifer Herrin, “Evaluating Product Manuals for Increased Usability,” Technical Communications. No. 35, 1988, p. 168-172)

• Revise: Now revise, using the information you gained while testing and evaluating. Question the presence of every word. If it doesn't contribute to the message, delete it.

• Check spelling: “Misspelling and typos reduce your credibility with the user. There’s no need to amplify this thought.”? (Goldfarb, Stephen M. “Writing Policies and Procedures Manuals,” Journal of Systems Management, No. 32, 1981, p. 10-12)

• Stop: Evaluating, rewriting, proofreading all are essential, but a time comes when the procedure must be declared finished and ready to use. It is wise, however, once it has been in use for a while to see what users have written or drawn in the white space you have provided. These glosses may provide useful clues to what is needed in a later edition.

Word processing
Word processing provides the opportunity to use typographical aids and makes it easy to format and revise. While basic word processing can be a wonderful replacement for typing, learning to use some of the more sophisticated features of your system can be extremely beneficial. Procedures saved to disk can be updated and revised periodically, and procedures or portions of procedures can be printed whenever necessary.

It takes time and thought to write clear procedures, but the effort on your part will save a great deal of staff time. Your staff wants to be able to perform well and will welcome procedures that help them to do so.

Carol W. Cubberly is a Director of Technical Services, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg.