Science and technology

Definitions

Science: 1. The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. 2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation. 3. Any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or astronomy.

Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology.

Science, systematic study of anything that can be examined, tested, and verified.

“Science,” Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004.

For many the term science refers to the organized body of knowledge concerning the physical world, both animate and inanimate, but a proper definition would also have to include the attitudes and methods through which this body of knowledge is formed; thus, a science is both a particular kind of activity and also the results of that activity.

“Science,” Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. New York: Bartleby Com., 2001. https://web.archive.org/web/20060525025643/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/science

In common usage the word “science” is applied to a wide variety of disciplines or intellectual activities which have certain features in common, e.g. library science, computer science.
Science is generally viewed as cumulative and progressive.

Science method

An organized approach to problem-solving that includes collecting data, formulating a hypothesis and testing it objectively, interpreting results, and stating conclusions that can later be evaluated independently by others.

Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology

• Used by researchers to support or disprove a theory
• Used to answer True-False questions only

Steps in scientific method

1. Observation. You observe something in the material world, using your sense or machines which are basically extensions of those senses.
2. Question. You ask a question about what you observe.
3. Hypothesis. You predict what you think the answer to your question might be.
4. Method. You figure out a way to test whether your hypothesis is correct. The outcome must be measurable.
5. Result. You do the experiment using the method you came up with and record your results. You repeat the experiment to confirm your results.
6. Conclusion. You state whether your prediction was confirmed or not and try to explain your results.

Science: classifications

Natural science: any of the sciences that deal with matter, energy, and their interrelations and transformations or with objectivity measurable phenomena.

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/

Natural science may be divided into:

• Exact sciences: in general characterized by possibility of exact measurement, e.g. physics, chemistry, mathematics
• Descriptive sciences: includes those sciences which describe, i.e. include a method of description or classification that will permit precision of reference to the subject matter, e.g. biology, geology
• Both exact and descriptive science may be called physical science.

Branches of science
Classifications of science are arbitrary. Some see science as composed of various branches such as:

• Physical sciences
• Investigate the nature and behaviour of matter and energy
• Astronomy
• Chemistry
• Physics
• Earth sciences
• Examine the structure and composition of the Earth
• Geology
• Hydrology
• Meteorology & climatology
• Oceanography
• Palaeontology 
• Life sciences
• All those areas of study that deal with living things
• Biology
• Medicine
• Technology
• Practical application of scientific knowledge
• Engineering
• To these three basic branches some add
• Mathematical sciences
• Investigate the relationships between things that can be measured or quantified in either a real or abstract form
• Others feel mathematics is not a science but it is closely allied to the sciences because of their extensive use of it

Royal Society of Canada Academy of Science
http://www.rsc.ca/en Four divisions

• Applied Science and Engineering
• Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science
• Life Sciences
• Mathematical and Physical Sciences

National Academies [U.S.]
http://www.nationalacademies.org/
Comprised of four organizations

• The National Academy of Sciences
• The National Academy of Engineering
• The Institute of Medicine
• The National Research Council

National Academy of Sciences [U.S.]

• Recognises 31 scientific disciplines:
  animal sciences and human nutrition; anthropology; applied math sciences; applied physical sciences; astronomy; biochemistry; biophysics; cellular and developmental biology; cellular and molecular neuroscience; chemistry; computer and information sciences; economic sciences; engineering sciences; environmental sciences and ecology; genetics; geology; geophysics; human environmental sciences; immunology; mathematics; medical genetics; hematology and oncology; medical physiology and metabolism; microbial biology; physics; physiology and pharmacology; plant biology; plant, soil and microbial sciences; population biology and evolution; psychology; social and political sciences; systems neuroscience

Science literature

• c. 95% of cited science literature from serials
• English the dominant language of science

Technology

the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes; the employment of tools, machines, materials, and processes to do work, produce goods, perform services, or carry out other useful activities.

Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology

Systematic knowledge and action, usually of industrial processes but applicable to any recurrent activity.

Technology is closely related to science and engineering.

Technology deals with the tools and techniques for carrying out the plans. 

Engineering is the application of objective knowledge to the creation of plans, designs, and means for achieving desired objectives.

“Technology,” McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science & Technology, 8th ed.

Technology can be seen as the practical ways to use scientific discoveries profitably, or ways of turning scientific knowledge into useful processes and devices.

Simply put, science concerns itself with why and technology concerns itself with how.

Chronology of major events
A Brief History of Science http://www.pbs.org/weta/roughscience/discover/briefhistory.html

Science Timeline http://www.sciencetimeline.net/

Chronology of Scientific Developments http://web.archive.org/web/20040603010036/http://www.txdirect.net/users/rrichard/science.htm

History of Science and Technology Timeline http://www.crimsonbird.com/science/timeline.htm

Science, Science Education and Technology Timeline http://web.archive.org/web/20041012032855/http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/parrott_timeline.html

Scientific communications
Garvey/Griffith Scientific Communication Model https://web.archive.org/web/20041231003741/http://www.ou.edu/ap/lis5703/sessions/s06.htm

Hurd

• Modernized Garvey/Griffith model
• No journal model
• See pp. 8-9 of below for diagram http://web.archive.org/web/20070605204720/http://www.kb.se/bibsam/bidrag/projbidr/magister/leden.pdf

Evolution of Scientific Information http://web.archive.org/web/20020113005937/http://www.usd.edu/library/subject/Scientific_structure/evolutionof.htm

http://web.archive.org/web/20050219040713/http://faculty.washington.edu/ehh/denver2002/pubcycle.gif

Structure of scientific literature
How literature is structured http://olinuris.library.cornell.edu/ref/skill8a.htm

Chinese University of Hong Kong ULS Information Literacy Tutorial http://web.archive.org/web/20021202130957/http://lib.cuhk.edu.hk/information/bi/infolit/sciinfo.gif

Scientific publication cycle
Oregon State University Libraries. Scientific Publication. http://web.archive.org/web/20040818202236/http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/staff/averyb/SciPub.htm

https://web.archive.org/web/20151211050921/http://www.lib.washington.edu/subject/Environment/Imt220/pubcycle.jpg

Types of literature
(Based on “Literature of Science and Technology” reading from McGraw Hill Encyclopedia)

• Primary sources
• Periodicals; conference papers
• reporting on research; conferences
• Research monographs/reports
• Preprints
• before committing to paper
• Patents; standards
• Dissertations; festschriften
• University PhDs, series, original essays
• Manufacturers’ literature
• instruction manuals; brochures; catalogues
• Secondary sources (publications summarizing and pointing to the primary literature)
• Indexing and abstracting services
• Bibliographies
• Reviews of progress
• Treatises
• In-depth look at a particular tool
• Reference tools
• Encyclopaedias
• Dictionaries
• Handbooks
• Tables
• Databanks/formularies
• Tertiary sources
• Textbooks
• Directories
• Guides to the literature

Primary literature

• Research and development
• Diaries, lab notebooks
• Non-formal/preliminary communication, “invisible college”
• Consultation with colleagues
• Correspondence, memoranda
• Seminars, colloquia
• Letters to editors
• Listservs, e-mail
• Intellectual property
• Patents, licensed technology
• Report literature, “gray literature” [works not usually available through regular market channels because they were never commercially published, listed or priced]
• Conference literature, lecture programs
• Technical reports, patents
• Theses, dissertations, engineering project for a degree
• Catalogues, brochures, leaflets, posters
• Personal websites, e-prints/preprints, etc.
• Research and technical reports, dissertations, theses
• Conference presentations and literature
• Preprints, proceedings, reprints

Main functions of conference literature

• Announcement of new knowledge
• Exchange of information and experience
• Education
• Formulation of problems and strategies
• Fact-finding and reporting
• Negotiations and policy formulation
• Progress reports
• Status and ceremonial congregation

Primary literature

• Standards and specifications
• Journal literature
• Preprint, article, reprint
• Journals
• Translations
• Scientific (archival/refereed/peer-reviewed most prestigious)
• Technical
• Trade
• Popular science
• Electronic

Functions archival/referred journal

• Communicate results of original research
• Serve as permanent archive of completed research and observations of natural phenomena and events
• Establish priority for an idea, theory, discovery or research finding
• Maintain standards of quality of reporting through a system of editing and refereeing

Journal shortcomings

• Failure to publish papers promptly
• Excessive restrictions on length of papers
• Wide scattering of papers in same subject area
• Cost

Secondary literature

• Indexes and abstracts
• Abstracts are the most important reference source for researchers
• SDI/Current awareness 
• Selective Dissemination Information
• Alert researchers about what is to be published or what has recently been published
• Current Contents, Ingenta

Surrogation

• Surrogate
• A substitute used in place of an original item, for example an abstract or summary that provides desired information without requiring the reader to examine the entire document. In a library catalogue, the description provided in the bibliographic record serves as a surrogate for the actual physical item.
• Bibliographies, catalogues, indexes/abstracts and SDI services are all examples of surrogation.

Repackaging

• Repackaging contents of primary documents into formats which will facilitate speedier and easier access e.g.
• Dictionaries
• Directories
• Tables
• Handbooks
• Yearbooks
• Almanacs

Compaction
Examples of compacted literature are:

• Reviews
• A comprehensive survey of the works published in a field of study, or related to a particular line of research, usually in the form of a bibliographic essay or annotated list of references in which attention is drawn to the most significant works. In scholarly journals that publish original research in the physical and social sciences, the first section of each article is usually devoted to a review of the previously published literature on the subject, with references in the text to a list of works cited at the end.
• Monographs
• Textbooks
• Treatises
• A book or long formal essay, usually on a complex subject, especially a systematic well-documented presentation of facts or evidence, and the principles or conclusions drawn from them.
• Encyclopaedias

Secondary surrogation

• Bibliography of bibliographies, e.g. Bibliography of Agricultural Bibliographies
• Directory of directories
• Guide to the literature
• An overview of the kinds of material on a particular subject which lists specific books and other materials. It may include information on library use in general, or how to get started finding information and special features of reference works in the field.

Through the research process science and technology information is continuously recycled back into research and developmental activities.

Access

• Archives collect original unpublished material
• Unique, irreplaceable
• Fragile, vulnerable to improper handling
• As a consequence, more stringent security procedures than libraries
• Closed stacks
• No borrowing by users
• No borrowing
• On site use in supervised reading rooms
• Registration required
• Name, address, phone #, email, area of research interest, date, signature
• ID: driver’s licence, student card
• National, provincial, municipal archives open to public by legislation
• In-house private or corporate archives may allow access only to employees or those with permissions
• Depositors may place restrictions on records, e.g. politician’s private papers may be closed for 30 years after death
• Archives may restrict access to
• Records containing defamatory, libellous, or personal info about third parties
• Damaged records, or records in poor physical condition
• Unprocessed material
• Handling and security practices include
• Pencils, laptops, voice recorders only
• No food, gum chewing, or drink
• No coats, briefcases, bags, umbrellas, etc.
• Restriction on amount of material to be used at one time
• Wearing white cotton gloves when handling fragile material
• Determine copying policies and services
• Only an archivist/technician should make copies not users themselves
• o Ceck “Policies and Procedures” links on The Archivist’s Toolkit: Reference and Access http://web.archive.org/web/20050310132405/http://aabc.bc.ca/aabc/toolkit_reference_and_access.html

Reference

• More time is generally needed to answer archival reference questions than library reference questions
• According to a 1985 article by business archivist Cynthia Swank, inquiries to her archives required anywhere from ten minutes to fifty hours to answer
• Cynthia G. Swank, “Life in the Fast Lane: Reference in a Business Archives,” The Reference Librarian 13 (Fall 1985): 42.
• Reference/orientation interview may be required
• Archival materials arranged very differently from library materials
• Lack of user familiarity with archival description
• Need to explain restrictions and policies

Typical reference procedures

• Fill out registration form
• Check personal belongings
• Receive orientation to collection including
• Procedures and fees for copying, restrictions on collections and rights to publish
• Sign form indicating understanding and compliance
• Participate in reference interview
• Participate in reference interview with archivist
• Area of research, materials required
• Good idea to contact archives beforehand by phone, e-mail to assure resources and staff available to help
• Fill out call slips for material identified

Issues in access and reference

• Democratization of archives
• Public right to know for government information
• Privacy concerns
• Conflict between principles of open access to information and protection of personal privacy
• Non paper forms of records
• Changing technologies mean either reformatting records or maintaining equipment to access information
• Impact of technology
• Documents in electronic form only, easily manipulated and changed
• Demand for online access
• Expanding user groups, e.g. genealogists, amateur historians, “professional” researchers seeking answers to specific questions, e.g. lawyers, environmentalists, criminal investigators

Manitoba Government Records Office https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/gro/recordkeeping/index.html

Mandate

Mission

What We Do

About Records https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/gro/recordkeeping/about_records.html

About Records

What are government records?

Why keep records?

What is ‘recordkeeping’?

Why manage records?

Who is responsible?

Managing Records in the Manitoba Government https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/gro/recordkeeping/managing.html

Retention and disposal of records

Transferring records

Retrieval and use

Destruction

Archival records

Services to the Government https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/gro/recordkeeping/services_govt.html

Records Advisory Services

Government Records Centre Services

Preservation Services

Conservation and security

Conservation and security http://web.archive.org/web/20090427031942/http://aabc.bc.ca/aabc/msa/6_conservation_and_security.htm

Preservation

From: Archives Association of British Columbia http://aabc.bc.ca/toolkit_preservation_conservation_and_emergency_planning.html 

Preservation, Conservation and Emergency Planning New Preservation Publications General Preservation Publications

Basic Conservation of Archival Materials http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/presinfo.html 

The Canadian Council of Archives (CCA) Preservation Committee has E-published “Basic Conservation of Archival Materials” – known to many in the archival community as the “Red Book”. The publication is presented in separate chapters in PDF format which will facilitate navigation and printing of desired texts.

You can find the “Red Book” and other publications of the Perseveration Committee at this address: http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/presinfo.html 

Photograph Preservation Publications

Cold Storage of Photographs at the City of Vancouver Archive http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/presinfo.html 

The Canadian Council of Archives has just E-published Sue Bigelow’s paper, “Cold Storage of Photographs at the City of Vancouver Archives.” Sue presented an abridged version of this paper at the 2003 American Institute of Conservation Photo Materials Group meeting in San Juan, Puerto Rico. 

This paper is as case study of the efforts made by the City of Vancouver Archives to freeze its deteriorating negative collections. The Archives used two freezer packaging methods, both based on research done for the Smithsonian Institution. The first was the Critical Moisture Indicator (CMI) method, in which a one-inch stack of sheet negatives was enclosed in a package which buffered humidity. These packages were boxed and frozen in a commercial frozen-food storage facility. The second method was the gasketed cabinet method. This paper can be found in PDF format in both French and English at: http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/presinfo.html

Image Permanence Institute Media Storage Quick Reference http://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/

The Image Permanence Institute at the Rochester Institute of Technology has produced a terrific on-line preservation tool. The IPI Media Storage Quick Reference is designed as a free interactive tool. This preservation tool allows the various storage environments (relative humidity and temperature) to be compared and ranked according to whether the conditions are considered ‘fair’, ‘good’, ‘very good’ or NO! Archival media such as cellulose acetate negatives, colour photographic prints, ink jet prints, etc., are included in this tool.

This web site has other information of interest to the archival community including a really informative article “A Consumer Guide to Traditional and Digital Print Stability.” The Image Permanence Institute web site address is http://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/

A Guide to the Preventive Conservation of Photograph Collections (Bertrand Lavédrine) http://www.getty.edu/bookstore/titles/preventive.html

“More than thirty years of continuing research into the preservation of photographic collections have led to a better understanding of the fragility of these images and the means by which to preserve them. A useful resource for the photographic conservator, conservation scientist, curator, as well as professional collector, A Guide to the Preventative Conservation of Photograph Collections synthesizes both the enormous amount of research that has been completed to date and the international standards that have been established on the subject.

The book opens with a description of the principal forms of deterioration that photographs may undergo. It surveys the variety of containers used to house photographs and the environmental conditions each is meant to improve. The book discusses the maintenance of photographic collections and the precautions that must be taken in exhibiting them. Special attention is given to the digital technology and innovative techniques available to manage a photographic collection and ensure its longevity. 

Bertrand Lavédrine works at the Centre de Recherches sur la Conservation des Documents Graphiques (CRCDG), a research center in Paris, France, dedicated to the preservation of paper documents, prints, films, and photographs.” (from the Getty Bookstore web page). 

This book can be ordered for $45 (US) from the Getty Bookstore at: http://shop.getty.edu/products/a-guide-to-the-preventive-conservation-of-photograph-collections-978-0892367016

Mould

Mould Prevention and Collection Recovery: Guidelines for Heritage Collections Canadian Conservation Institute Technical Bulletin #26 https://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/resources-ressources/publications/category-categorie-eng.aspx?id=18&thispubid=500 

The Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) has just published their new Technical Bulletin #26 Mould Prevention and Collection Recovery: Guidelines for Heritage Collections. CCI states, “Mould infestation in heritage collections can damage artifacts and may pose a health risk to individuals who work with these collections. This Technical Bulletin presents information on mould morphology, prevention of mould growth, actions to take should mould occur, and health effects relating to mould exposure. It informs the reader how to remove mould growth from artifacts and it describes the appropriate personal protective equipment to wear when working in a mould-contaminated environment or when working with mould-infested artifacts.”

This Technical Bulletin will be an invaluable source for all archives particularly in regards to health considerations and safe handling of mouldy archival records. It is available on-line from the CCI Bookstore (www.cci-icc.gc.ca) for $20 (CAN).

Preservation Policy Resources General Preservation Policies

National Preservation Office (UK) http://web.archive.org/web/20041020164523/http://www.bl.uk/services/npo/npo8.pdf

The best starting point for preservation policy development and searching policies on the Internet is the National Preservation Office (UK) Website. The NPO has produced an excellent publication titled Building Blocks for a Preservation Policy. This publication outlines the components to include in a policy, define what a policy is, offers a preservation policy checklist and lists further preservation policy readings. Unfortunately, none of the readings have internet links. 

Carleton University’s Preservation for Non-Electronic Records http://web.archive.org/web/20041225043628/http://www.carleton.ca/cu/aboutus/policies/archives_policies/preserv.htm

Carleton University has a basic preservation policy posted on their Website. This policy was approved in 1995 and covers most of the main points required in a preservation policy. Further information with regard to environmental specification (relative humidity and temperature requirements for various archival media, pollutant levels etc should be written into either the policy or associated procedural guidelines.) 

Ontario Museum Notes http://web.archive.org/web/20070305151557/http://www.culture.gov.on.ca/english/culdiv/heritage/musnotes.htm

The Ontario Museum Notes is a very useful series particularly for archives which are housed within museums. Series notes include:

1. The Museum Board: Its Organization and Function 2. Developing a Statement of Purpose for the Museum 3. Writing a Collections Management Policy for the Museum 4. Developing a Conservation Policy for the Museum 5. Museum Insurance 6. Handling Museum Objects 7. Developing a Research Policy for the Museum 8. Principles and Techniques of Oral Documentation 9. Developing an Exhibition Policy for the Museum 10. Developing a Staff Training Policy 11. Developing an Interpretation and Education Policy for the Museum 12. The Community Museum and the Disabled Visitor

Public Records Office of Northern Ireland http://www.proni.gov.uk/

The Northern Ireland PRO preservation website has sections on what is preservation, why have a preservation policy, common standards for the preservation of records, acquisition and selection and records storage, copying of records and public displays and exhibitions, conservation and repair and disaster prevention and reaction.  

Sound Archives/Electronic Records

Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE http://web.archive.org/web/20120317040054/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Preservation/

The Berkeley Digital Library site offers a wide range of preservation information including links to preservation articles, on-line resources and links to preservation policy samples. The focus of this site is primarily on preservation policy relating to electronic records but general preservation policies are also included such as the National Library of Australia’s Draft Policy on Preservation Microfilming and the National Library of Australia’s Preservation Policy. 

Sound Archives/Nga Taonga Koreno of New Zealand http://www.soundarchives.co.nz/

The Sound Archives/Nga Taonga Koreno of New Zealand makes available their access policy, preservation policy and selection and acquisition policies.

Screen Sound Australia http://www.nfsa.gov.au/site_media/uploads/file/2011/06/20/NFSA_Collection_Policy_May_2011_Webready.pdf

Screen Sound Australia has posted a basic preservation policy for their sound archives. Included in their policy are sections on ethics; multiplicity of copies and storage; stable formats and media – stability, storage and format; transfer, digitisation, conversion and virtual preservation and other areas.

Photographic Media – Storage Enclosures The selection of an appropriate storage enclosure for photographic media can initially appear bewildering. However, selection of the best storage enclosure does not have to be difficult if the following information is taken into account. 

All storage enclosures that come in contact with photographic media should conform to the specifications outlined in:

ISO 18902-2001 Imaging Materials – Processed photographic films, plates, and papers – Filing enclosures and storage containers. (This standard outlines appropriate paper and plastic enclosure materials; adhesives, printing ink, etc.)

ISO 14523 – 1999 Photography – Processed photographic materials – Photographic activity test for enclosure materials. (This standard outlines the testing procedure used to determine whether a material (paper, adhesives, ink, plastic, etc.) will interact negatively with a photographic image.)

All paper enclosures should:

• pass the Photographic Activity Test – most conservation supply catalogues indicate whether a product has passed the P.A.T.
• be lignin-free; free of peroxides; be chemically stable and not cause abrasion of the photograph
• Black and White photographic images should be stored in paper enclosures which have a pH between 7.0 and 9.5 with at least a 2% calcium carbonate reserve (buffer)
• Colour photographic images should be stored in paper enclosures that meet the same standards as for black and white images but the pH range should be between 7.0 and 8.0

Over the last number of years there has been ongoing research into whether it is more appropriate to use buffered (above pH 7.0) or non-buffered (pH 6.0 – 7.0) paper enclosures for photographic media. It now appears that the concerns about using buffered/alkaline enclosures in direct contact with photographic media were unfounded. 

Paper envelopes with side adhesive seams are recommended over envelopes with a central T seam as the side seam tends to interact less with the photograph. When inserting a photograph into any paper enclosure with an adhesive seam always insure that the emulsion side is away from the adhesive seam. In a photographic print the emulsion is the image side and in a photographic negative the emulsion is the dull, matte side.
  Some enclosures such as MicroChamber paper, in addition to alkaline buffering incorporate molecular traps in their paper structure. Molecular traps, made from either zeolites or activated carbon, are designed to adsorb specific types of gaseous pollutants. It is thought that the molecular trap will trap or adsorb pollutants from the ambient environment or pollutants being off-gassed by the archival record. These types of enclosures could be useful for archives with poor environmental control and/or high indoor pollutant levels or for holdings with a combination of black and white prints, cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate negatives and colour media housed together. 

All plastic enclosures should:

• pass the Photographic Activity Test
• safe plastics do not have plasticizers, are usually inert and are chemically stable. Safe plastics include: polyester (also known as Mylar Type D, Melinex Type 516 or polyethylene terephthalate); polypropylene, polytheylene, and polystyrene. Use only plastic enclosures that have clearly identified plastics.

It should be noted that Dupont ceased production of Mylar Type D last autumn. An plastic equivalent to Mylar Type D is Melinex Type 516 and is also made by Dupont. 

References: ANSI/NISO Z39.77-2001 Guidelines for Information About Preservation Products. Bethesda, Maryland, NISO Press. (Available as a free PDF download file from http://www.niso.org/kst/reports/standards/) 

This publication has an excellent glossary of preservation terms. Also very useful is Appendix A: Referenced Standards and Tests as it lists relevant standards that relate to preservation products. 

ISO 14523 – 1999 Photography – Processed photographic materials – Photographic activity test for enclosure materials 

ISO 18902 – 2001 Imaging Materials – Processed photographic films, plates, and papers – filing enclosures and storage containers. 

ISO standards can be ordered online at http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html

Optical Disc Media Compact Discs Compact Discs are comprised of a core, a reflective layer and a lacquer layer. The core is usually made from polycarbonate plastic but it can also be metal or etched glass. The reflective layer is usually aluminium but is occasionally gold. The lacquer layer is added for protection in handling and use. 

A variety of CD formats are available. Each type of CD can vary in laminate components and vary in how the information is recorded.

• Compact disc digital audio (CD-DA)The CD-DA is used in for mass-market music CDs.
• Write-Once Read-Many (WORM)WORM CDs can contain images, text, sound, video, etc. and is a commercial format.
• Compact disc – Recordable (CD-R)CD-Rs are like WORMs but are used non-commercially to record images, text, sound, video, etc. CD-Rs cannot be erased or reused.
• Compact disc Rewritable (CD-RW)CD-RWs can be used, erased and reused.

The information recorded on CDs is encoded in digital form. The method of encoding the information varies depending on whether the CD is a read-only CD – CD-ROM (CD-DA and WORM) or a writable CD (CD-R and CD-RW). 

Read-only CDs are made from molded polycarbonate with a spiral track of pits which hold the information. The laser reads the information from the pit. Read-only CDs are silver on both sides of the CDs. 

Writable CDs are made from a molded polycarbonate like read-only CDs but have dyes added to the laminate structure. As the information is being recorded by the laser onto the CD the dye becomes discoloured which results in the information being encoded. Writable CDs appear green, gold or blue on one side rather than silver on both sides. 

What type of CD-R to buy Not all CD-Rs are created equal in terms of stability. Gold CD-Rs should be used if you are planning on undertaking an access/preservation project where you plan on using CD-Rs as the storage medium. Gold CD-Rs use the more stable phthalocyanine organic dye and appear to be a light green in colour. Many companies produce gold CD-Rs including Mitsumi and HHB. To find local suppliers of gold CD-Rs you can check the company websites for CD specifications and local suppliers. 

Storage and Handling

• Wear clean, lint-free gloves when handling CDs.
• Handle CDs by their edges.
• Store CDs in their polystyrene “jewel cases”, polypropylene or polycarbonate cases or other archival plastic. Do not store in paper or card enclosures.
• Store CDs vertically.
• Do not bend or place pressure on the CD as this may lead to delamination.
• Store CDs in the dark as ultraviolet light can discolour the lacquer and polycarbonate layers causing laser reading problems.
• Avoid excess humidity levels (above 50%) as early CDs reflective layers have been known to oxidize. Reflective layer composition has changed over the years but excess humidity should still be avoided.
• Do not label discs with self-adhesive labels. Consult the disc manufacturer to find out which type of marker pen is appropriate for the disc.

Environmental recommendations
The life expectancy of a CD varies with the CD composition and storage environment. Currently, the life expectancy is thought to be anywhere from 20 – 200 years. Temperatures below -10C and 5% are not recommended for optical media.

Maximum Temperature (+/- 2C in 24 hrs allowable) Maximum Relative Humidity (+/-10% in 24 hrs allowable) Less than 23C                    20% - 50%

References ANSI/PIMA IT9.25-1988. Optical Disc Media – Storage. New York: American National Standards Institute.

Conservation Online – Electronic Storage Media http://cool.conservation-us.org/bytopic/electronic-records/electronic-storage-media/ The CoOl Website offers a vast array of preservation related articles and links to preservation sites. The Electronic Storage Media section has many useful articles and links to archival preservation issues.

General preservation sites

CoOl – Conservation Online http://cool.conservation-us.org/

The CoOl web site is one of the most useful and comprehensive preservation sites on the Web. It is a wonderful resource as it has a wide ranging subject heading section i.e. disaster planning, electronic media, mold etc; a section with mirrors to other sites such as the Western Association for Art Conservation (WAAC), the Abbey Newsletter (ABN), SOLINET; and the always valuable Consdist list archive. Mirror sites such as WAAC and the ABN post their newsletters on their sites – they are an invaluable source of information. Generally there is about a one-year holdback of newsletters.

Council on Library and Information Resources http://www.clir.org

In the “Publications” section of the CLIR site you can find the Preservation and Access Newsletter and CLIR reports. Reports such as publication 80 “Why Digitize?” and publication 69 “Digitization as a Method of Preservation?” offer food for thought with regard to the confusing world of digital preservation!

National Media Lab http://www.nml.org/

This web site has useful information on modern media. Magnetic Media by John Van Bogart can be found here. 

Research Libraries Group – Preservation http://web.archive.org/web/20041026052747/http://lyra2.rlg.org/preserv/

This is one section of RLG’s excellent web site. A wide variety of information on digital imaging can be found here.

Henry Wilhelm’s site http://www.wilhelm-research.com/

Henry Wilhelm, the author of The Permanence and Care of Colour Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides and Motion Pictures, continues to pursue research in the colour photography and imaging field. Research results and updates can be found here. Currently, articles on cold storage for photographs and film and iris prints are highlighted. 

Image Permanence Institute http://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/

The Image Permanence Institute is very interesting and should be surfed regularly to see what’s new. In their New Products and Publications section you can order publications such as “The Storage Guide for Color Photographic Materials”, A-D Strips and several other publications.

International Association of Paper Historians http://www.paperhistory.org/ 

This site has informative sections on paper museums, watermark classifications, paper history, research projects and IPH publications.

National Parks Service IPM http://web.archive.org/web/20031209092524/http://www1.nature.nps.gov/wv/ipm/manual.htm

This is a great site offering copious amounts of information about many common pests.

Vidipax http://www.vidipax.com/

Jim Lidner’s “Magnetic Media Restoration Headquarters” web site. Of particular interest is the Video Preservation Resources section where associations and professional groups are listed in addition to on-line research and preservation information. Also included here are articles on links to the National Film Preservation Board of the Library of Congress, Research Libraries Group and the Council of Library Resources.

Preservation Information Leaflets

National Archives and Records Administration http://www.archives.gov/

The NARA site has a very useful FAQ section with subsections on Building Environment and Standards, Digital Media, etc.

Northeast Document Conservation Center http://www.nedcc.org/

The Northeast Document Conservation Center has a terrific site. The “Publications” section of the site is a real bonus as most of NEDCC’s technical leaflets including all those found in Preservation of Library and Archival Materials: A Manual are available.

Library of Congress http://www.loc.gov/preservation/

The section “Caring for the Library of Congress Collection” has useful areas such as preservation reformatting, Emergency Preparedness and Response. See also: http://www.loc.gov/preservation/resources/ for the Library of Congress Preservation Publication Series.

Southeast Libraries Network http://web.archive.org/web/20050303222019/http://www.solinet.net/

From the home page go to Preservation Services and then click on Leaflets. Here you will find a range of preservation bibliographies, internet resources, services and suppliers and the full range of Solinet handouts.

Standards organizations

Standards that relate to paper permanence, photograph standard, environmental standards etc can be found at the following web sites. At each web site standards are not available for browsing but orders can be placed either on-line or by snail mail.

Standards Council of Canada http://www.scc.ca/ 

International Organization for Standardization http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html

American National Standards Institute http://www.ansi.org/ 

National Institute of Standards and Technology http://www.nist.gov/

Conservation catalogues

Conservation Resources International http://www.conservationresources.com/  

Conservation Resources has an on-line catalogue where orders can be placed. Other interesting sections include the “Hot News”, “Technical Support,” and “Novel Applications”. MicroChamber paper is featured in the “Hot News” and “Novel Applications” sections.

Light Impressions http://www.lightimpressionsdirect.com/

Light Impressions is primarily a photographic preservation on-line catalogue. The web site set-up is very easy to use and offers a picture of each product called up. It is a very easy site to navigate and easy to place orders.

Archivart http://www.archivart.com 

University Products http://www.universityproducts.com/ 

Two more on-line conservation catalogues. Products can be ordered and catalogues can be requested to be sent to you.

Notes on disaster planning

Most disasters tend to occur when the building is unoccupied.

Over 90% of all disasters will result in water-damaged materials.

Mould can develop within 48-72 hours in a warm, humid environment.

Set salvage priorities

1. Intrinsic value
2. Research value
3. Historical value
4. Value to collection
5. Replacement cost
6. Availability in different format

Simple preventive measures

1. Store items 4”-6” (10-15 cm) above floor level
2. Don’t store items under pipes and drains
3. Use heavy plastic sheeting to protect items at risk
4. Seal windows with duct tape

Salvage procedures for water-damaged paper materials

Air drying

1. Requires space and work tables
2. Can be very labour intensive
3. Results can be uneven
4. Books may require rebinding
5. Coated papers require great care
6. Requires good air circulation and low relative humidity

Freezing

1. Stabilizes wet materials and prevents additional damage
2. Provides additional time to make decisions
3. Use blast freezer at -10F to reduce distortion
4. Items may be lest frozen indefinitely with no additional damage
5. Books in a self-defrosting freezer will dry out eventually

Vacuum freeze drying

1. The safest and most successful salvage method for paper but also the most expensive
2. Frozen books are placed in a vacuum chamber
3. Ice in books vaporizes without melting
4. Some items may require rebinding
5. Process very successful with coated papers, if frozen c. 6 hours after wet

Vacuum thermal drying

1. Wet or frozen books are placed in a drying chamber
2. Books are dried at 32F+
3. Process often produces extreme distortion

Dehumidification

1. Massive dehumidifiers dry building and all contents at same time
2. No need to remove, pack, freeze, etc.
3. Originally developed for dying out holds of ships
4. Can be quite effective even with moderately wet coated papers

References
Basic Conservation of Red Archival Materials (Red Book) http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/public_free.html#2

A Manual for Small Archives: 6, Conservation and Security http://web.archive.org/web/20041205211016/http://aabc.bc.ca/aabc/msa/6_conservation_and_security.htm

Disaster Prevention and Response http://web.archive.org/web/20010612111356/http://www.dupage.edu/soaring/disaster.html

Disaster Recovery Plan http://web.archive.org/web/20010419140226/http://www.dupage.edu/soaring/disasterplan.html

Library and archival disaster: preparedness and recovery. [videorecording] Z 697.7 .1527 1986

Salvage Operations for Water Damaged Archival Collections: A Second Glance by Betty Walsh, 2003, 27 p. http://www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/salvage_en.pdf

Disaster preparedness

What is a disaster?

• Disasters include fire, flood, wind, tornado, vandalism, and malfunctioning building equipment such as burst water pipes. They can occur anytime without warning.

What is a disaster plan?

• A disaster plan is a document that describes the procedures devised to prevent and prepare for disasters, and those proposed to respond to and recover from disasters when they occur.

Disaster plan

A set of plans and guidelines, prepared in advance by the staff of a library, to deal with a major occurrence such as a flood or fire which could damage equipment, collections, and/or facilities to such an extent that services might have to be temporarily suspended.

Joan M. Reitz. ODLIS

Disaster preparedness… the comprehensive term that describes strategies employed to protect library and archives collections from any unexpected or accidental loss from external causes. Sometimes these are minor, such as those resulting from leaks in the roof or plumbing system. Other times they are major floods, fires, earthquakes, and the like.

Lisa L. Fox. Disaster Preparedness Workbook for U.S. Navy Libraries and Archives

Every disaster has three phases:

• Before
• During
• After

Before phase (everyday routine operations)

• Preventative plans recommending action to prevent most disasters, e.g.
• Repair leaking roof
• Improve maintenance
• Upgrade security
• Preparedness plans designed to ensure identified disasters can be managed, e.g.
• Identification of important items in collection
• Purchase of plastic sheeting
• Identifying freezing facilities
• Staff training in disaster response

During phase

• Response to disaster

After phase

• Recovery plans implemented
• Because each disaster is unique recovery plans can never cover all possibilities, however, most library disasters involve water damage so all key personnel should be familiar with salvage methods for wet library material

Steps in preparing a disaster plan

• Conduct a risk analysis
• Identify existing preventive and preparedness procedures
• Make recommendations to implement additional preventive and preparedness procedures
• Allocate responsibilities
• Devise procedures to respond to and recover from disasters

Why a written disaster plan?

• To gain some peace of mind
• To respond more effectively

Why don’t people create them?

• Requires time and energy
• Disasters only happen to others
• U.S. studies show a library worker has a 2 in 5 chance of participating in a major disaster in a 40 year career

Types of disasters and hazards

• Environmental
• Blizzard or heavy snow fall
• Severe heat wave, cold snap
• Severe thunderstorm
• Lightning strike
• Sleet, hail, ice
• Wind storm, tornado, cyclone
• Flooding
• Earthquake
• Dust storm or prolonged drought
• Transportation
• Collisions or crashes involving aircraft, trains, motor vehicles
• Transport of dangerous materials
• Infrastructure breakdowns
• Electrical power failure
• Downed power or phone lines
• Faulty wiring
• Water supply failure
• Broken water or sewer lines
• Sewer failure or backup
• Faulty heating systems
• Industrial disasters
• Explosion
• Major fuel spill
• Chemical spill structural collapse
• Structural fire
• Biological hazards
• Insects
• Rodents
• Birds
• Mould and mildew
• Human activity
• Accidents
• Arson
• Bombing
• Bomb threat
• Hostage situation
• Riot, civil disorder, strike
• Sabotage and malicious mischief
• Vandalism
• Work-place violence

At a minimum a good disaster plan will include the following sections:

• Disaster team members and duties
• Emergency instructions
• Priorities for salvaging materials
• Recovery techniques and procedures for salvaging damaged materials
• Emergency phone numbers
• Inventory of the disaster response closet, location of keys to the closet
• Disaster response reports (master copy only)
• List of suppliers and resources (large freezers, freeze-drying facilities, etc.)
• Distribution of copies of disaster plan
• Revision table (master copy only)

Priority salvage list categories

• Salvage if time permits
• Salvage as part of a general clean-up
• Salvage at all costs

Ask questions such as:

• Is item especially important to the community?
• Can item be replaced? 
• At what cost?
• Would cost of replacement be more or less than restoration?
• How important is the item to the collection?

Disaster recovery

• Most disasters tend to occur when building is unoccupied (night, weekends, holidays)
• Over 90% of all disasters will result in water damaged materials
• Mould can develop within 48 to 72 hours in a warm humid environment

Salvage procedures for water damaged materials

• Air-drying – labour and space intensive but cheap, not recommended for coated glossy paper as in magazines (pages can become permanently stuck together)
• Freezing – stabilizes wet materials and provides time to plan course of action
• Vacuum freeze drying – safest and most successful salvage method for paper but most expensive

Selected resources
A wealth of material exists in print and on the Internet.

Books
Fortson, Judith. Disaster Planning and Recovery. New York: Neal-Schuman, 1992.

Kahn, Miriam. Disaster Response and Planning for Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association, 1998.

Articles
Moore, Mary. “Attack of the Killer Mold Spores.” American Libraries 30 (March 1999): 46-9.

Wettlaufer, Brian. “Preparing a Library Disaster Plan.” Library Mosaics 5 (November 1995): 6-10.

Internet
Amigos Library Services, Inc. A Disaster Plan for Libraries and Archives, 2008 http://www.amigos.org/preservation/disasterplan.pdf

Society of Rocky Mountain Archivists. Preservation Publications. http://www.srmarchivists.org/resources/preservation/preservation-publications/

Fox, Lisa L. Disaster Preparedness Workbook for U.S. Navy Libraries and Archives http://resources.conservation-us.org/disaster/

McColgin, Michael. Disaster Recovery Plan. http://www.srmarchivists.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/disaserplan.pdf

SEFLIN Preservation and Conservation Committee. Disaster Plans on the Internet. http://web.archive.org/web/20070308203017/http://www.seflin.org/preserv/intplans.html

SOLINET. Disaster Mitigation and Recovery Resources. http://www.solinet.net/preservation/presevation_templ.cfm?doc_id=71

Stanford University Libraries. Preservation Dept. “Disaster Preparedness and Response.” CoOL: Conservation OnLine http://cool.conservation-us.org/