Dialog indexing

Module 1
Database: collection of machine-readable information accessible through a computer aka a file.

Record: discrete information unit

Field: distinct information part

Information producer/provider company compiling database records, responsible for content

Professional online service search system providing multiple database access

Database types

Full text	Complete text of document
Directory	Factual information about organization, companies, people, products, materials
Numeric	Data in tabular/statistically manipulated form, with added text
Hybrid	Mix of full text, citation and abstract records

Constructing a database
1. Create a linear file of records received. Assign sequential accession numbers, uniquely.
2. Label record files – au (author), ti (title). If field is word-indexed, label words within field. Exclude stop words.
3. Create the base index – all words and phrases from fields containing subject-related terms.
4. Create the additional index – all terms from remaining fields.

Basic index field = suffixed fields
SELECT commands search the Basic index unless term is qualified by suffix. To qualify a term to a given field, enter a forward slash followed by a two-letter suffix

Suffix/Code	Field Name	Indexing
None	All basic index fields	Word
/AB	Abstract	Word
/DE (/DF)	Descriptor	Word/Phrase
/ID (IF)	Identifier	Word/Phrase
/NT	Note	Word
/TI	Title	Word

Suffix	Example
None	S Inner(W)City(W)Neighbourhood?
/AB	S Neighbourhood(W)Affiliation?/AB
/DE	S Manipulative(w)materials/DE S Mathematics activities/DE
/ID	S Affiliate(W)behavior/ID
/NT	S Child(W)Development/NT
/TI	S Geometric(W)thinking/TI

Controlled vocabulary
Descriptors subject-related terms taken from a thesaurus/controlled vocabulary list, assigned to records by professional indexers
Bound descriptors/descriptor phrases multiple-word descriptors, entered into index as each individual word/whole phrase
Identifiers terms assigned to record by indexer generally not from controlled vocabulary. Typically proper nouns, geographic locations, or words not yet in thesauri

Proximity operators

Operator	Function	Examples	Terms retrieved
(w) ()	Words adjacent/in order specific	Library(w)science? Library ( )science?	Library science Library sciences
(nW)	Up to n intervening words in specified order	Library(2w)science?	Library science Library sciences Library with science Library and information science
(N)	Words adjacent and in either order (near operator)	Library(N)science?	Library science Library sciences Science library Sciences library
(nN)	Up to n intervening words, and in either order	Library (1N) science	Library science Sciences library Library with science materials Science related library
(F)	Words in some field, no word order/proximity specified	Socrates(F)oz Socrates(F)oz/ti	Both terms in title/abstract Both terms in the field
(L) database specific	Words in some descriptor unit Used to link subheadings	Zinc(L)toxicity	Zinc as descriptor heading linked to toxicity as subheading
(S) full-text	Words in same subfield or paragraph	Napoleon (S) France	Napoleon and France in same subfield or paragraph

Selecting descriptor terms
If you select a multiple-word phrase, including spaces and punctuation, Dialog retrieves the phrase only if it is an exact descriptor or identifier. e.g. s teaching skills, teaching(w)skills/de, s teaching (w) skills

If you select a single word and restrict with the suffix /DE, Dialog retrieves the word if it appears anywhere in a descriptor term. e.g. s teaching/de

To retrieve a single-word descriptor, but not descriptor phrases containing word, use the suffix /DF, e.g. s teaching/df

Basic index – file 148

Search suffix	Display code	Field name	Select examples
None	None	All basic index fields	S American(W)Bank?
/AB	AB	Abstract	S Citicorp/AB
/CN	CN	Case name	S American(W) Business(W)Service?/CN
/CO	CO	Company name	S Citicorp/CO
/UN	UN	Ultimate company name
/CP	CP	Caption	S Photograph/CP
/DE	DE	Descriptor/concept term	S Europe/DE
/EN	EN	Event name	S Joint(W)Ventures/EN
/GN	GN	Geographic name	S Europe/GN
/IN	IN	Industry name	S Banking/IN
/LP	LP	Lead paragraph	S Chemical(W)Banking/LP
/NM	NM	Named person	S Gates(1N)Phyllis/NM
/PN	PN	Product name	S Banking(W)Institutions/PN
/ST	ST	Statue name	S Glass(W)Steagall(W)Act/ST
/TI	TI	Title	S Europe(2W)Profits/TI
/TN	TN	Brand name	S Maestro/TN
/TX	TX	Text	S European(W)Operator?/TX
/XF	None	All basic index fields except full text	S Foreign(W)Operations/XF

All indexing is word.
Searching a phrase in the Basic Index of File 148 automatically searches the descriptor field since it is the only phrase-indexed field in the Basic Index.
Searching the word-indexed fields in the Basic Index using proximity connectors to indicate how close you want the terms to appear in relation to one another.

Module 2
Basic Index

Search suffix	Field name	Indexing
/AB	Abstract	Word
/DE	Descriptor	Word/Phrase
/ID	Identifier	Word/Phrase
/LP	Lead Paragraph	Word
/TI	Title	Word
/TX	Text	Word

Additional Index (Prefixed fields)

Search suffix	Field name	Indexing
AU=	Author	Phrase
BN=	ISBN	Phrase
CS=	Corporate Source	Word
JN=	Journal Name	Phrase
LA=	Language	Phrase
PD=	Publication Date	Phrase MMDDYYYY
PY=	Publication Year	Phrase YYYY
WD=	Word Count	Numeric
CO=	Corporate Name
DT=	Document Type
PC=	Product Code/Standard Industrial Classification
TS=	Ticker Symbol

Searching the additional indexes
Using a prefix is required when searching the Additional Indexes (S teaching skills and dt=conference?)

To SELECT a group of entries from the same prefixed field, use parentheses (s teaching skills) and dt=(conference paper or journal article)

Use the EXPAND command in phrase-indexed fields (additional indexes) to see how phrases appear in particular field index

Expand command tips
Enter the appropriate prefix for searched index.

Enter only the first part of the name/search term to go to the right index search.

Examine the E numbers list carefully.

Never enter any truncation or proximity operators because Expand is completely literal, character by character.

Selecting the items off the EXPAND list
Select E (or R) numbers off the EXPAND list using either the OR operator or a comma between individual E numbers, or the colon operator to select a range.

Page through up to 50 entries (12 items at a time) on the list by entering P or PAGE. Once you reach 50, must select your E numbers, as you will start a new list of entries.
SELECT all relevant E numbers before entering another EXPAND command. Each new command erases the previous command.

Phrase Indexing versus Word Indexing Tips
Use right hand truncation to pick up multiple endings to a phrase.

Searching general(W)electric in the word-indexed company field (/CO) will retrieve all records where the words occur directly next to one another in that specific order in the /CO field – regardless of any variation in the beginning or end of the company name.

Choosing a database
Have a request.

1. Use the information list. Consider
• Clearly defined subject
• Purpose of search, overview
• Topic perspective - academic, popular
• Information quantity
• Information type - complete article, abstract
• Known sources - authors, journals, papers
2. Determine database(s) to provide best information. Consider

• Content
• Coverage
• Currency
• Cost

Requesting the database description opens another web browser. Dialog is not case sensitive.
Type select [search query]
Click search
Dialog returns a list of databases with topic information and the number of records found. Can reorder results by sorting.
Check databases to search and click “Begin Databases” to run strategy.

Planning a search strategy

1. Select additional search terms
2. Use search word variants, truncation
3. Use proximity connectors to search phrases
4. Search exact record phrase; search phrases containing stop words, punctuation, hyphens, special characters
5. Narrow search for precision

Connector	Description	Example	Retrieves
(N)	Searches adjacent terms in either order	Fiber?(n)optic?	Fiber optics Optics fiber
(W)	Searches adjacent terms in exact order	Flex(w)time	Flex time Flex-time
(#n) or (#w)	Allows additional terms to occur between words	Market(5w)share	Share of the long distance market
(S)	Restricts words to the same paragraph	Telecommunication?(S)sales	Sales in the...

Logical operators

Logical operators	Definition	Example
Or	Use to group synonymous terms when one must be present	Ultraviolet or UV or Ultra (W) violet
AND	Use to connect terms when both/all must be present	Market(SN)share AND tennis(W)equipment

Using Classic Dialog search commands

Command	Example	When to use it
Begin B	Begin 9 B 9 B 9, 16 current B Business news	Use to begin with a file number to specify databases to be searched Use current to restrict a search to the current year plus the previous year specified
Select S	Select telecommut? S telecommut? S merg? or acqui? S s1 and s2	Use select to create a set of records (e.g. s1) that contains the specified terms

Managing search results
The item numbers can indicate a single record, a range or a non-sequential range of records, enter ALL to see all records.

Command	Example	When to use it
TYPE T	Type s1/6/1-3 T s 3/9/1,3 T s 2/6, k 1-5,8	To display search results in specified format
DISPLAY SETS D	Display sets D	Display a set of all sets created since the last BEGIN command

Refining a search
The basic index

Display code/search suffix	Field name	Indexing	Select examples
/SL	Slogan	Word	S(ALL)(W)ABOARD(W)/SL
/SP	Spokesperson	Word	S JAMES(W)EARL/SP

The extract field (/XT) searches both the Abstract and Lead Paragraph fields.

Suffix allows searching only most important information within each record, helping to make more precise search strategies.

Suffixes append to the end of a search word, phrase, or set number. Suffixes can be separated by commas.

Additional indexes
These indexes indicate how to narrow a search further by using information other than the search subject. (Display code omits=) All but WD is phrase indexing; WD is numeric indexing.

Display Code/Search Prefix	Field name	Select examples
AA=	RDS Accession number	S AA=014621
CT=	Concept term	S CT=Market share
GC=	Graphic code	S GC=WOR
MT=	Marketing term	S MT=General research
RT=	Record type	S RT=Full text
SF=	Special feature	S SF=Table
SL=	Slogan	S SL=All Aboard America
None/SO=	Source information
SP=	Spokesperson	SSP=James Earl Jones
UD=(None)	Up to this date	S UD=9999
WD=	Word count	WD>2000

Use truncation at end of a search term expressing a name to retrieve all name variations.
A colon is used to indicate a range of sequential entries to be retrieved.
The format for the Publication Date is usually YYYY, MM, DD (Year, Month, Day)

The Expand command
Use to verify spelling, punctuation, and other variations of the names in the field. Use the E Reference number(s) to SELECT desired entries.

Expand using appropriate prefix and term.

Select the E-numbered lines that contain variations.

Type S2/full/1 to see complete record.

Dialog applications
Dialog can help with a number of tasks:

Monitor competition	Track articles
Plan production introduction	Locate articles
Research industry development	Keep literature updated Check trademark/patent application/registrations with potential product line impact
Develop marketing strategies	Locate market share data and published market research reports, print out
Find merger and acquisition candidates	Screen companies based on financial parameters
Locate elusive company	12 million+ public, private, subsidiary, international company listings

Entering multiple operators

Repeat the same proximity operator to connect a series of search terms

Enter most precise operator first – W, N, L, S, F

Alternatively, use parentheses. Use around terms connected with logical operators so that these will be selected first. Select a set number in proximity to another set or to new search terms.

Dialog lecture

Basic search example
B to begin
# for database (separate multiple by commas; shorten to abbreviations if searching similar databases)
n for database file number
? searches [search terms]
brackets indicate subject headings
Dialog tells you how many records are available
?T for type view results
s1 = set 1 records
s = view titles and descriptors (free format, browse)
1 = print
SELECT

Set	Items	Description
Set number	Number of records containing hits	Term(s) as entered in the SELECT COMMAND

Always enter a space after command. Any word/term except stop words can be selected. Phrases must be selected using the (w) command unless the term is a descriptor or identifier.

Multiple terms can be selected when using logical commands. To create a set for each term in the command, use SELECT STEPS (change, recombine terms e.g. bilingualism in Canada, then bilingualism in Belgium).

Open truncation	? retrieves all words beginning with, e.g. with comput? (computers, computer, etc.); symbolises unlimited length with no intervening
Controlled-length truncation	Retrieves all words beginning with a maximum number of letters following word stem ? [space] ? retrieves all words beginning with ? with maximum of one character following word stem
Imbedded character	? for character replacement letter for letter to retrieve either spelling e.g. organisation, organization If more than one letter, use OR e.g., favor OR favour

Viewing records: TYPE command
Command format
?type s5/2/1-4

s5 /	2 /	1-4
Set number	Format	Items inclusively; item numbers can be a single record, a range (e.g., 1-4, 6, 9 or ALL/all)

If omitted, default becomes

Item	Next record display
Format	Format set typed
Set	Last set created

LOGOFF log off system
Enter one select command for each concept, combining synonyms and alternative terms with OR logic.Select the set numbers representing different concepts, combining them with AND logic.

Searching styles

Concept blocks	Break down logically with Boolean searching
Pearl growing	"Gem" search for perfect record meeting search criteria
Successive fractions	Extremely broad search - breakdown into finer divisions with more limits
Known item matching	Situation known item, looking for specific item to verify existence

Stacking Enter several commands in a single line of typing separated by semicolons. A line can contain up to 240 characters.

Narrow search	Broaden
AND concept	No concepts; limit
Use fewer terms	Use more terms or subject headings
Use proximity operators	Truncate left
Truncate right	Use broader terms
Qualify/limit	Remove qualifiers, limitations

Search the basic index/suffice fields
Select commands searches the entire Basic Index unless the term is qualified by a suffix. Using a suffix is an option when searching the Basic Index. To qualify a term to a given field, enter a slash (/) followed by two letter field suffix. Use a comma to specify either field.

Selecting descriptor terms
Include spaces and punctuation if exact descriptor single word restricted with descriptor, retrieves word anywhere in descriptor term, use DE

Retrieve single word using DF / IF

Searching numeric indexes

:	Low/high ends range, e.g. 1986:1991
>	Greater than
<	Less than
>=	Equal to/greater than
<=	Equal to/less than

Proximity
Exact phrases anywhere,
Adjacent/hear other words,
(sub)heading descriptors

Use for-:
Exact phrases anywhere,
Files not employing controlled vocabulary,
Phrases containing stop words, punctuation, hyphens and special characters
Phrases not in thesauri
Particularly new terms
Unusual expressions
Subjects marginally covered

Searching full-text files when using logical operators may be dangerously broad

Narrowing a search to decrease recall and increase proximity precision

Repeat proximity to connect series

Use parentheses

Correct order – W, N, L, S, F

Use parentheses around connected terms to be processed first

Replace punctuation marks with a (W) operator.

To select from a phrase-indexed field, enter the exact bound phrase with all punctuation intact, if containing slash, apostrophe, or logical operator, enclose the phrase in quotation marks.

Precision versus Recall Search examples

Select command(s)	Records	Explanation
east and germany	3691	Two words appear in the same record
east(f)germany	3364	Two words appear in same Basic Index Field
east(w)germany	1852	Phrase appears in Basic Index
east(w)germany/ti	559	Phrase appears in title field
s east germany	2	Phrase appears as a Descriptor or Identifier

Searching on terms containing punctuation

To select from a word-indexed field, replace each punctuation mark with a (w) operator.

To select from a phrase-indexed field, enter the exact bound phrase with all punctuation intact. If the phrase contains a slash, apostrophe, or logical operator, enclose the full phrase in quotation marks.

Expand command

Expanding in the Basic Index: ?expand microcomputer

The EXPAND display pauses after every 12 lines. Use PAGE (or P) to see the next 12 lines. Up to 50 lines can be displayed.

Expanding to view the Online Thesaurus

To view the related terms, EXPAND the E number. Each related term is assigned a R reference number. An R-numbered list includes a code describing the relationship.

Expanding on terms containing punctuation

Do not use proximity operators or truncation.

The strings of characters entered after EXPAND is interpreted literally and simply inserted into the index where it fits alphabetically.

Selecting terms after expanding

To retrieve a single entry from an expand list, Select its E/R number. Be sure to SELECT before entering EXPAND. Each EXPAND command creates a new list and erases the previous one.

Selecting multiple terms

Retrieve multiple entries from same EXPAND list synonymously related, use OR logic. Retrieve sequential entries, use colons.

Expanding in additional indexes

Use EXPAND to check entry form for fields containing names.

For author’s name, enter surname and first initial.

For company’s name, enter first part then try variation with abbreviations, punctuation.
For journal name, start by EXPANDING on first word. Notice if database uses abbreviations. If needed, enter a different EXPAND.

Limits

Available to facilitate broad restrictions to retrieval. Entered as suffixes in a SELECT command. Limits are highly database specific.

Determine what limits are available – read Bluesheets, enter command HELP LIMIT n (with n being file number)

Enter suffixes in SELECT commands after /

Use /ENG more than LA=English. Use LA= field for other languages. EXPAND to verify entry form.

Current= current year plus the previous year

Expand fields if you’re not sure what a field has available.

Restrict publication date, SELECT from appropriate Additional Index. In databases with PY= field, enter years without prefix as a LIMIT suffix.

Dialog

Records

Bibliographic	Citation Title Author Date Location Summary/Abstract
Directory	Gives information/description Names/Addresses Business types
Numeric	Demographic
Fulltext	Complete article

Producers provide information, in which Dialog then makes searchable and accessible within minutes.

Content is constantly updated.

More access points include title, keywords, date, author

Command space data

Begin (b)	Put in desirable database	File number
Select (s)	Locate/display records
Type (t)	Followed by format/	6 title only 5 full record/records to display 3 bibliographic display
Logoff
Truncation ***	Cuts down/typing synonyms	Or -1 present And – all Not – eliminates
S s1 and s2	Selects sets 1 and 2

(n) non specific word order, requires proximity, include a number for number of intervening words

(w) specific word order between words, looks words up together in a phrase; truncation available

Stop words
Stop words aren’t indexed. They are replaced by proximity operators or enclosed in quotation marks.

Stop words are: of, and, an, by, for, from, the, to, with

An example using stop words would be:

slip? (2w) tongue which would locate “slip of the tongue” with ‘of the’ being the 2 intervening words between slip and tongue

Logical operators are and or not

Components of commands steps, files, set number

symbols = * + : /

Index
Abstract

Title

everything else in additional indexes

Limit = limit specific

Sort = sort by title/author/journal

Format

Additional indexes – company names, authors, explands

ST = state; CY = city; ZP = zipcode

Dialog Pocket Guide

http://support.dialog.com/searchaids/dialog/pocketguide/pktgde.pdf
Sections of interest:
• Basic search commands
• System features

History of electronic resources

What is online?
Online searching is a means by which electronic databases stored on a remote computer can be accessed and searched from a computer terminal.

History of electronic resources
The application of the term “online” has changed over the past few years (pre-2004) due to the development of new products and services. The term “online” can apply to:

• Commercial, “traditional” search services such as those offered by Dialog
• CD ROM database searching (1980s)
• Consumer online services, e.g. American Online, MSN
• The Internet (Many people think that that online is the Internet)

Finding information online

• Bibliographic citations were found manually usually printed abstracts and indexes such as Engineering Index (1884), Index Medicus, and Chemical Abstracts
• Manual production of abstracting and indexing services was labour intensive and the delays long. It could take up to two years between the publication of an article in a journal and its listing in an abstracting and indexing journal.

The convergence of data processing, information science, the growth in public data networks and the computerisation of print publications brought the online industry into being

• 1950s: computers developed, batch processing, number crunching, first text-based search
• 1960s: batch searching (non-interactive) in readable form, some services developed, printed indexes produced by computers, 
• 1969 ARPANet developed. Beginning of Internet ; American military decentralized information elsewhere
• 1970s: commercial databases launched (Dialog, considered first, had 6 bibliographic databases in 1972); expensive, difficult to use, mainly searched by specialists. 
• 1980s: OPACs became common in libraries, an increasing number of diverse databases and commercial services were available, business information provision grew with more full-text systems based around menu interfaces were being offered to end-users, CD ROMs were adopted towards the end of the decade
• 1990s: propriety Windows interfaces were developed, then as the Web became popular access to commercial services over the Web became a priority for suppliers; end-user searching was now a reality and services were marketed directly to the actual consumers of the information, rather than professional intermediaries.

“In large part, the history of electronic resources for reference began with the development of computer-assisted typesetting and printing.”

Kathleen M. Kluegel, 2001. Electronic resources for reference. In Reference and information services: an introduction 3rd ed., general eds. Richard E. Bopp, Linda C. Smith

Batch processing

• Advances in computer and telecommunication technology
• Modem
• A contraction of modulator-demodulator, an electronic coupler used to connect a computer terminal to a telephone communication system. A modem translates electronic signals of the computer into sounds that can be transferred over the telephone line.
• Much faster disks stacks replaced magnetic tapes
• Development of microcomputers, search software and telecommunications networks
• Searcher and system communicate interactively

interactive

A computer interface designed to respond to input from a human being, usually in the form of commands and/or data. A back-and-forth dialogue between a computer program and its human user is an interactive session.

ODLIS: Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science

History of electronic resources

• 1972 Dialog 1st commercial online service
• Developed by Roger Summit (father of online systems) for Lockhead Missile and Space Company
• others follow, e.g. ORBIT (SDC), CAN/OLE (Canadian Online Enquiry Service, 1972), BRS (1977)
• Number and availability of databases available through search services increase
• Market expands to most academic and special libraries
• Early 1980s full text databases become available on commercial search services
• Mediated searching era
• Mid 1980s meditated searching peaked than began a sharp decline

Meditated search

A systematic search in which a trained intermediary, such as an online services librarian or information broker, assists the end-user in locating desired information, by helping to formulate and execute appropriate strategies for searching online catalogs and databases, and by using more traditional bibliographic finding tools.

History of electronic resources

• 1st online databases developed for use by end-users, but most end-users unwilling to take time to learn search language required
• Most searching done by trained searchers/librarians on behalf of others
• Charged on a per search basis typically based on time spent online + additional charges for displaying/printing the records
• 1982 Knowledge Index (Dialog), After Dark (BRS) introduced
• Menu rather than command driven
• Marketed to end-users
• Fewer databases and features but lower pricing
• 1980s introduction of CD-ROM databases in libraries
• use of CD-ROM searching skyrocketed, dial-up information services steadily declined
• 1990s development and expansion of World Wide Web

It should be noted Dialog is generally not used in libraries, whereas databases are. Dialog can be found in special libraries, where they are quick and specific, and the service keeps reinventing itself.

Geography

From: Herron, Nancy L. The Social Sciences: A Cross Disciplinary Guide to Selected Sources, 3rd ed. Greenwood Village, Colo. : Libraries Unlimited, 2002. pp. 395-96.
Joanne M. Perry
Based upon an essay by Karl Proehl
Essay

Although the common perception of geography is that it is merely a collection of place names and lists of products or recounting of explorers’ adventures, it is important to understand what geography is all about. Geography is the study of the Earth and all that is upon it, but it focuses on the significance of location, distribution, and subsequent patterns of identifiable phenomena. The research compares and contrasts differences from place to place and associates patterns of one particular phenomenon to other patterns within the area. The essence of geography, then, lies in the importance of places and regions, and the interconnections among places and regions. 1

Gilbert Grosvenor, chairman of the board and former president of the National Geographic Society, wrote: 

Geography deals with the physical and cultural realities of the world. It helps us to understand the varied and complex environments of the Earth. It gives meaning to location and establishes a context for understanding the connections of places. 2

Grosvenor added that an understanding of the significance of location and place is important; otherwise the consequences of human activities within the physical environment is lessened. Geography provides a frame of reference. It explores, describes, analyzes, and interprets the imprint and the processes of human activities on the land. 

Novelist and former social studies teacher, the late James Michener, noted:

The more I work in the social studies field the more convinced I become that geography is the foundation of all … When I begin work on a new area … I invariably start with the best geography I can find. This takes precedence over everything else, even history, because I need to ground myself in the fundamentals which have governed and in a sense limited human development … The virtue of the geographical approach is that it forces the reader to relate to man to his environment … It gives a solid footing to speculation and it remind the reader that he is dealing with real human beings who are just as circumscribed as he. 3 

Geography, as an interdisciplinary field of study has an interest in both the physical and cultural worlds. Although geography’s physical side is not specifically covered in this chapter, most of the items cited will cover the entire discipline, not just the study of human activity of Earth […] is the focus of geography as a social science. 

During the twentieth century a number of fundamental themes evolved within geography. A traditional definition of the discipline is given in the essay “Geography” by Norton Ginsburg found in A Reader’s Guide to the Social Sciences (A-1). In the new two-volume edition, published in December 2000, the geography chapter has been radically rewritten with essays that focus on feminist geography, geographical information systems, residential segregation and urban social geography and human geography. Geographers also point to a presentation by William Pattinson entitled “The Four Traditions of Geography” as a help in defining the discipline. 4 It is also traditional for the current president of the Association of American Geographers to present a presidential address that defends the nature and state of the discipline, which is then published in the Annals of the AAG. 

Regional and systematic geography
Within the social sciences the study of geography is divided into regional geography and systematic geography. The regional approach has traditionally formed the core of geography and reform its essential character. 5 The main purpose of regional studies is to concentrate on the geography character of areas and to focus on critical distinctive features. Regional studies usually include a number of topics: location, natural environment, population, political status, type of economy, internal arrangement and organization, external connections and relationships, characteristic landscapes and their origin, world importance, potentialities, and problems. 6

Alternatively, systematic geography is focused on the phenomenon and how it is spatially distributed. Systematic geography experienced significant growth during the twentieth century, research interests splitting off from each other as geographers became increasingly specialized. For instance, the main subfield, human geography, was subdivided into cultural, economic, historical, political, population, and urban geography.

Geography

Quotes

“Without geography, you’re nowhere.”

Jimmy Buffett

“Anyone who believes that the way to a man’s heart is through his stomach flunked geography.”

Robert Byrne (U.S. writer and billiards champion player)

“The science concerned with the description of the earth’s surface; its form and physical features, its natural and political subdivisions, and its climate, products, and population.”

Gates, Jean Key. Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources. 7th ed.

Branches

• Systematic: concerned with individual physical and cultural elements of the earth
• Physical geography includes geomorphology, climatology, biogeography, soils geography, hydrography, oceanography, cartography
• Cultural/human geography includes economic geography, political geography, military geography, ethnography, historical geography, urban geography, demography, linguistic geography
• Regional: concerns the differences and similarities among the various regions of the earth; seeks explanations for the variety among places by studying the special combination of features that distinguish these places
• The objective of the regional geography is to account for the physical and cultural landscape of certain unified areas, e.g. Manitoba’s Physical and Human Environments, Canada’s Physical and Human Environments, Regional Geography of Africa: Study of physical and future of the nations in Africa

Maps

• General reference
• usually a small scale map covering a large area
• Topographic
• portrays shape and elevation of terrain
• Thematic (subject), e.g.,
• aeronautical charts, census tract maps, historical maps, land-use maps, population maps, soil maps, weather maps, etc.
• Photoimage
• aerial photograph/satellite image with map symbols added

Online sites

Library and Archives Canada: Maps, Charts and Architectural Plans http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/maps-plans/index-e.html

Understanding Maps http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/freefun/understandingmapping.html