Basic library procedures: Role of circulation services

The circulation services unit of a library fills two important roles. The first and perhaps most obvious role is that of circulation control. This is defined in a classic text as “that activity of the library, which, through personal contact and a system of records, supplies the reader with the books wanted.” (Jeannie M. Flexner, Circulation Work in Public Libraries (Chicago: American Libraries Association, 1927),1) Throughout history, people have had limited access to books and other forms of information. The primary reason for the existence of the library is its specialized service, which makes available to users a wider variety of information and ideas than they could otherwise obtain. This service is the foundation upon which the whole structure of the modern library rests. The use of modern reference tools, instruction and guidance in the use of the library, and readers’ advisory are unimportant if customers cannot obtain the information they want. Circulation routines are established, records maintained, and personnel employed and trained to make information efficiently available to borrowers or to explain why requested items cannot be immediately supplied.
A second and equally important role of circulation services is that of public relations. Often the first contact people make with a library is at the circulation desk, the centre of library activity for most customers. Public opinion of the value and usefulness of a library results from many personal contacts between individual users and the library staff. In many cases, circulation practices determine whether users continue to use the library or whether they become discouraged at failures to obtain desired information promptly. Whole library systems may be judged by the work of a single circulation assistant.
The library must properly train circulation staff to prepare them to give effective and efficient service. Staff members should be imbued with the service ideal of the library and taught the philosophy behind the routines they perform. In this way they may be expected to treat each user as an individual whose request is important and who is entitled to the full measure of services consistent with library policy.
Special libraries usually do not have a staff person devoted to circulation. Often check-out of library materials is done on a self-serve basis with instructions on how to fill out cards placed in plain sight. After use, materials may be deposited in the library, mailroom, or in-box of library staff. Checking in and reshelving materials may fall to the librarian, library clerk, or other office support staff.

Philosophy of circulation
The circulation philosophy of a library derives from the library’s mission and goals or from its governing body. Commonly, this philosophy involves guaranteeing to a library’s clientele equal and fair access to the library’s collection. Today this philosophy also includes a desire to deliver material into the hands of the users. This desire to provide access to library materials is expressed through the actions of staff and the existence of appropriate procedures.
These democratic ideals were not always the norm. For centuries libraries were more the preservers and guardians of knowledge than the purveyor of it. Until the invention of movable type in the fifteenth century, books were both scarce and valuable, and few people were literate. Libraries, whether government collections; religious collections attached to temples, churches, or monasteries; private collections; or academic collections, had very restrictive circulation policies. The generous circulation privileges we know today are of recent vintage. Indeed, the whole notion of a publicly supported lending library, whose purpose is to make books available to all, is a relatively new idea.
In the United States, public libraries as we now know them date from the mid-nineteenth century. Initially, public libraries performed an educational function. In the early 1800s, librarians argued over the question of open access to the bookshelves. Free access to the books first was conceived as a privilege for the scholarly researcher. Later, people advocated access to the collections of a basis of service to the needs of working people. Supporters of closed stacks maintained that unfettered access would lead to disorder on the shelves and decimation of the collection through theft. They also argued that the presence of intelligent desk attendants would be more helpful than stack access.
Recreational reading began to take on importance in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Emphasis on the use of books gradually increased and it was understood, even in the nineteenth century, that the card catalog did not provide sufficient across to the collection for most patrons. In response, library staff developed annotated book lists, subject lists, bulletins of recent acquisitions, and printed daily lists on subjects of current interest. The minimum age of borrowers were lowered, and children’s rooms were established. Hours were extended to cover nights and weekends.
Academic libraries lagged behind public libraries in emphasizing use. “In the old days at Columbia College, freshmen and sophomores were allowed to visit the library only once a month to gaze at the backs of books; the juniors were taken there once a week by a tutor who gave verbal information about the contents of the books, but only seniors were permitted to open the precious volumes, which they could draw from the library during one hour on Wednesday afternoons.” (T. W. Koch, "Some phases of the administrative history of college and university libraries," ALA Bulletin 6 (1912): 274). In 1893 Lodilla Ambrose wrote: “Several large institutions limit students to a reference use of the library...In a certain college a student may have only two books a week; one of these must be from the religious department, and these will only be given to him on presentation of a ticket signed by one of his professors.” (Lodilla Ambose, "A Study of college libraries," Library Journal 18 (1893): 116)
One does find exceptions to these limitations on student use of the library. However, before the first generation of the twentieth century, the traditions and the literature of collegfe libraries emphasized preservation rather than use.
Today, circulation staff find themselves with new formats aside from books, such as videos, CDs, laser disks, cassettes, and computer software. Libraries determine circulation policies and routines with the goal of providing maximum access to the materials. The circulation staff member sees their work through this ideal as it is expressed in library policies and individual attitudes. As the staff member becomes familiar with the rules and regulations, the policy of the library with regard to their role will be better understood. Although rules are generally enforced with impartial fairness, some circumstances require a literal interpretation while others call for a more liberal rendering: for example, staff at a library that requires a valid library card may overlook the occasional forgetfulness of a well-known borrower and allow the customer to check out books without the card, yet still require proof of eligibility from an unknown borrower. The more fully the circulation assistants understand the underlying philosophy of the institution, the more accurately they can determine which circumstances call for exceptions to the rules.

Customer relations
Almost everything done in a library is an act of customer relations. Anything that affects the patron’s attitude toward the library, negatively or positively, is part of customer relations. How long it takes to catalogue books, how staff answer the telephone, the accuracy of the reshelving process, the inflection in one’s voice when answering an question, the presence and quality of signage, and the “warmth” or atmosphere of a library are only a few examples of things that have an impact on customer relations.
There are philosophical and practical reasons for a library to be concerned about customer relations. Good customer relations will stem from the delivery of quality service. Conversely, bad customer relations is a sign that the service philosophy of the library is defective in vision, execution, or both. Some libraries make formal attempts to assess user satisfaction to determine how well they are meeting and exceeding the needs of their customers.
From a practical standpoint, good customer relations is vital for the stability of a library’s financial base. Whether public, academic, special, or school, a library must depend on a parent agency for funding. Libraries are expensive yet low-profile institutions and in times of financial exigency (that is, most of the time) they are easy targets for budget slashing unless they can rally supporters. Good customer relations is essential in building this corps of advocates and thus helps to guarantee that a library will continue to have the resources it needs to fulfill its mission and goals.
Because of its central role in providing service to library users, a large share of the responsibility for good customer relations rests on the circulation staff. Increasingly in some libraries, working with culturally diverse groups presents a challenge to staff. There is a growing need to understand cultural differences and the needs of non-English speakers to provide good-quality service. If staff members apply rules and regulations with fairness and flexibility, each customer is treated as an individual with important needs, and if routines aimed at providing efficient service are accurately performed, positive customer relations will almost surely follow.
There are, however, a small number of library users who do not respond to courteous treatment and efficient service. These customers are sometimes categorized as “problem patrons”. The largest category of problem patrons is those individuals with contentious personalities or chronically bad attitudes. To these individuals, attempts at fair treatment are unappreciated and reasonable library service is insufficient. Nevertheless, library staff must make reasonable attempts to satisfy every customer’s library needs, even those of problem patrons.
Urban libraries, especially public libraries, are sometimes visited by individuals who are, for instance, intoxicated, or by homeless people seeking shelter. Latchkey children gather in many libraries after schools let out. Although these and other users may cause occasional problems for the staff, no class of users should be singled out for special treatment. The same policies should govern treatment of everyone. If certain behaviour problems are common at a particular library, a policy for handling individuals exhibiting this behaviour should be in writing and known to all library staff. Posting such a policy to make customers aware of it is also helpful.
It is important that circulation staff members do not get into the habit of considering all library customers with problems as problem patrons. Users often have valid criticisms and to treat them all as problem patrons is to reflect a negative service attitude on the part of the staff.
What sorts of problems are brought to the attention of a circulation staff member? Intner’s 1987 study of circulation policy asked librarians about users’ complaints. (Shelia Intner, Circulation policy in academic, public, and school libraries (New York: Greenwood, 1987)) In academic libraries the principal problems reported by borrowers were lack of information about materials they wanted to borrow and couldn’t find and lack of notification about overdue materials. Circulation limits on reserve items and restrictions on renewals were other problems, as well as dissatisfaction with the tedium of manual charging systems and strict application of circulation rules. The most frequent complaints of public library users were about insufficient numbers of desired titles and not being notified about their overdue materials. Borrowers were also unhappy about short loan periods, limited renewals, fines, and the use of collection agencies. The most frequent complaint of students using school libraries was that materials they wanted were not available. Students also wanted to be notified about their overdue materials and they disliked receiving overdue notices for materials they believed they had returned. Like other library users, students were annoyed at limited loan periods and restrictions on their library privileges.
Circulation staff should be aware of the most frequent complaints made by users of their library and should pass complaints on to their supervisors. Many libraries have manual or online suggestion boxes or complaint forms to document problem areas. Appropriate responses to complaints should be taught to all loan desk workers and the responses should be made with courtesy and tact. Some libraries have a response bulletin board, which allows staff members to post public responses to questions or complaints.

Circulation control systems
Characteristics of circulation control systems
In theory, a circulation control system allows staff to determine, at a minimum, the location of each book in the collection and to administer the circulation policy fairly. Each system has unique characteristics that determine its value to a library. The traits discussed below occur, in varying degrees, in all circulation systems. When a system is studied, the importance of each characteristic for a particular library’s operation must be considered.
First, the system must be easy for borrowers to use and for library personnel to operate. A complex or cumbersome system may result in poor service and customer relations if borrowers view it as an obstacle to their needs, rather than as an aid. Simplicity and ease of use might be the most important qualities of any circulation control system.
Second, the system must be reliable. It must accurately record transactions with little opportunity for user or staff error.
Third, the system should allow library staff to identify the borrower, the material borrowed, and the date material is due. All systems provide this information, but differ in the speed with which it is retrieved. In some libraries this information may not be needed instantly. In school and academic libraries, however, where class assignment deadlines are important determinants of circulation demand, one requirement is that the borrower’s name and the due dates of materials must be available immediately so staff members can recall materials for use by other students.
Fourth, the system must provide a record of overdue materials. This information is needed to send overdue notice, provide a record for fines, and develop a list of materials for possible replacement. Some libraries identify overdue material daily, while other libraries do it less often.
Fifth, the system should provide easy and accurate retrieval of requested materials when they are checked in. Borrowers often request materials already on loan. The borrower should be able to request notification when materials are returned and available for further use. This request is called reserving a book, or a hold request. The system must allow for returned materials to be checked against hold requests and held for the next borrower.
Sixth, the system should allow for easy retrieval of statistics required by the library. For some libraries a manual system provides enough statistics with minimal effort. Other libraries may need sophisticated records on reading patterns or collection use, requiring a computerized system.
And finally, the system must be cost effective. The system must not make an undue claim upon the staff, material, or financial resources of a library in proportion to the benefits received from the system and the rest of the library budget.

Selection of a circulation control system
Selecting a circulation control system is one of the first decisions made when establishing a library. The system selected affects how materials are prepared for use: It must be known whether the circulation control system will require a book pocket and book card, a date due slip, a punch card, or a bar code before material is processed. The method of circulating books affects other library operations as well. Careful study is needed to select a circulation system. Once it is in operation any change or major modification will be costly and time consuming. Many considerations are involved in the selection of a circulation system.
The first most common consideration is the quality of service given to the customer. To some degree all of the following factors must be balanced with the library’s standard of good service. The circulation control system must be compatible with the needs of the library’s users and the overall purpose of the library.
The second factor is the size of the library collection and the expected volume of circulation. Some systems, well suited to a small volume of circulation, would be inadequate in a larger library. The opposite is, of course, also true: An automated system is needed in a library circulating 500,000 items a year, but may be unnecessary in a library circulating 5,000 volumes a year.
The third consideration is the cost of the system. Three elements pertain here:
1. the initial cost of processing and equipment;
2. the cost of ongoing processing; equipment maintenance, and supplies;
3. the cost of personnel needed to operate the system.
This kind of analysis is complex and requires detailed research. A carefully selected circulation system may save many thousands of dollars in unnecessary expenses each year.
A fourth consideration is the type of customer the library serves and the kind and amount of borrower participation built into the system. Some systems require that the borrower merely hand the material to library personnel, who do everything necessary to charge it out. Other systems require that the borrower fill out cards with the author and title of the book and the borrower’s name and identification number. Still other systems allow customers to self-charge materials out to themselves. In a public library, the circulation control system must accommodate a wide range of customers and abilities. To avoid errors, a public library might use a system in which the patron hands the material to library personnel who handle the entire processing. At the other end of the spectrum is the academic or special library. Because these libraries serve a select clientele from whom relatively error-free participation is expected, the library can save personnel by letting the borrower do as much as possible. There are still a number of small institutional libraries (for example, corporate and seminary libraries) where the honor system serves as the only circulation control.

Selected circulation control systems
Automated circulation control systems
The newer circulation control systems are computerized. Not all libraries possess an automated system, although the number of libraries with automated circulation control systems has greatly multiplied since the first systems were installed in the mid-1970s. As early as 1989, a survey of public and academic libraries suggested that more than 60 percent enjoyed some level of automation. ("Upgrading systems, softwarem and microcomputers: the state of automation in 1,003 libraries," Library Journal 114 (September 15, 1989):56) This has increased to nearly 100 percent as of 1999.
In 1998, 10 of the top 12 automated library systems offered circulation modules, and a number of PC based systems are also available for smaller libraries. (Leigh Watson Healy, Library systems: current developments and future directions (Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources, 1998). Systems vary from a single PC based system in a small library to a mini-server in larger libraries with multiple PCs. Each system operates in the same general manner but with certain unique features. The description that follows covers only the basic characteristics common to most computer-based systems.
Automated circulation systems generally require little or no patron participation. Each library user is assigned a unique identification number that appears as a bar code (also called a zebra number or optical character recognition or OCR label). These bar codes are attached to the user’s library card, and staff scan (or “read”) them with a light pen or optical scanner. Anyone who shops in a grocery store will recognize the bar codes, which are similar to those that appear on most food packaging. Staff also apply a unique bar code to each item in the library’s collection. The item’s bar code number is linked to the item’s bibliographic record in the online catalogue.
To charge out an item, the customer presents the bar-coded identification card to the circulation attendant together with the material to charge out. The clerk scans the bar code on the identification card with a light pen or optical scanner, or may enter patron and item data via a keyboard. The computer automatically retrieves the patron record and checks the borrower’s eligibility to borrow materials (for example, no current excessive overdue fines is enrolled in school, and so forth). If the patron’s status report is satisfactory, the attendant scans in the bar code on each item to be charged out. Each item charged out is automatically linked to the patron’s record in the computer’s memory. The attendant returns the identification card and completes the transaction by placing a pre-printed date-due notice in the book or stamping the date-due slip in the book to remind the borrower of the items’ due dates.
To check in returned material, the staff member places the system in the discharge, or check-in mode. When the system reads the bar code on the item it clears the record from the computer’s memory unless the item is overdue, in which case the system automatically generates a fine notice. The borrower’s record is either cleared or attached to the overdue information. If another borrower has a reservation (hold) on the item the system displays this on the monitor and the clerk takes appropriate action to notify the requesting borrower.
At least one automated system has a portable unit with an independent power source. This allows staff to charge material out at remote locations, such as on a bookmobile, or use it as a backup system during a power failure. The unit can also be used to compile records of in-house use of reference and other materials.
Increasingly, computer-based circulation systems are linked with the library’s automated catalog in integrated systems. This allows customers to determine the circulation status of catalogued materials directly from the public terminals. It also allows customers to determine the circulation status of materials in the collections of other libraries with integrated systems. This is a valuable enhancement of service and is especially useful information for interlibrary loans and interlibrary referral.
Automated systems can also facilitate self-charging for library customers. Permitting borrowers to check out their own items frees circulation staff to perform other service functions. This service may also improve productivity and efficiency, reduce expenses, and allow libraries to handle increasing circulation activity without increasing staff while affording customers an option for self-service. The technologu is similar to that used in automatic teller machines. The borrower places a library card in the system. If the card is approved, instructions appear on how to position the item and scan the bar code. The system then verifies the circulation status of the item, checks it out, and desensitizes the security device. Date-due slips can be printed, and if a problem is encountered the customer is prompted to inquire at the circulation desk.
There is a list of tasks most computerized circulation systems can be programmed to perform. Each of these jobs is labour intensive and costly with a manual system. If a computer performs these tasks a library can improve service, and, perhaps, even save money:

1. identifies delinquent borrowers who have overdue materials and/or owe fines;
2. displays the reason for the delinquency;
3. alerts staff to lost or stolen identification cards when one is presented;
4. indicates when a reserve (hold) has been placed on an item;
5. displays all items currently checked out to a borrower and eliminates any record
of past circulation activity;
6. allows placement and notification of reserves (holds);
7. calculates fines and fees for overdue items;
8. prints recall notices;
9. automatically prints overdue and fee statements;
10. indicates whether a particular item is already checked out or is temporarily unavailable, for example at the bindery;
11. records and prints a variety of statistical information concerning collection use and circulation activities.

Automated systems are flexible and a library may tailor the functions cited above to meet its specific needs. The only way to understand an automated circulation system is to see one in operation or, better yet, use one in person. A visit to a successful operational system is far more useful than reading a description.

Manual circulation control systems
In a landmark 1961 study, George Fry & Associates identified 28 different circulation control study systems employed in American libraries (George Fry & Associates, Study of Circulation Control Systems: Public Libraries, College and University Libraries, Special Libraries (Chicago: Library Technology Project of the American Library Association, 1961). Most of them, however, are not widely used, and only two manual systems prevail today. They are the Gaylord system and the Newark system. Because computerised circulation systems are now the norm, the general descriptions of the Gaylord and Newark systems will be discussed only.

The Newark system
The Newark circulation control system is the most widely used manual system in the United States. It is simple to use for both borrowers and staff and is suitable for both small and medium-sized libraries. The system requires no expensive equipment. There are two variations of the system: (1) self-charge, which requires borrower participation; and (2) staff-charge, with no borrower participation.
When a library uses a the self-charge method, borrowers remove the book card from the book pocket and write their names and identification numbers or other required information on the first available blank line. The borrower gives the book and book card to the circulation attendant, along with a library card or other form of identification. The staff member verifies the identity of the borrower and stamps the due date in the book and on the book card. The book card is then ready to be filed, by date due and the call number or simply by call number. In this case it is necessary to have the call number, author’s name, and title on the book card and book pocket to verify that the book card pertains to a particular book.
In the staff-charge method, a circulation staff member, not the borrower, fills out the information on the book card. Borrowers give the attendant the material to be charged out and their library cards. In this method each library card has an identification number, and the staff member writes this number on the book card instead of the borrower’s name. The staff member does not sign the patron’s name, or the borrower could later claim the signature was forged. The remaining steps are the same as in the self-charge method. Staff-charge is more expensive to operate because of increased staff time, but it generally reduces the number of errors.
In both of the above methods, when material is returned a staff member removes the book card from the file. This ends the borrower’s responsibility, and staff cancel the borrower’s record on the book card. the book card is placed back into the book pocket and the material is ready for reshelving.
A library using the self-charge system maintains a file of registered borrowers by name; however, libraries maintain two registration files for the staff-charge version, one filed by identification number and one filed by borrower’s name. Because only the borrower’s identification number is on the card, staff use the second file to identify the borrower if material is overdue or if other problems arise.

The Gaylord System
This circulation control system is named for the manufacturer of the electric book charger staff use to charge out materials. It is similar to the Newark system except that a machine fills in the information on the book card. This frees both the borrower and library personnel from this time-consuming task. The system requires no borrower participation. When borrowers register with the library, they receive library identification cards with an identification number embossed on a metal plate. One variation of the charging machine allows the use of a plastic identification card, which can be used to print directly onto the book card.
If an identification card with the embossed plate is used, registration files of borrowers by name and identification number are needed, because only the identification number appears on the book card. With the plastic identification card, the borrower’s name can be printed on the book card, eliminating the need for a registration file by identification number.
To charge out material the borrower presents the material and identification card to the circulation attendant. The staff member removes the book card from the book pocket and inserts it into a slot in the charging machine, then inserts the identification card into another slot. The machine automatically prints the borrower’s name or identification number and a due date on the book card. The attendant places a predated date-due card in the book pocket. The book card is now ready to be filed by due date and in order by call number or author.

Evans, G. Edward; Amodeo, Anthony J.; and Carter, Thomas L. Introduction to Library Public Services. 6th ed. Greenwood Village, Colorado : Libraries Unlimited, 1999.

Introduction to circulation and types of circulation systems

Sir William Osler said in 1917, “The librarian of today, and it will be true still more of the librarians tomorrow, are not fiery dragons interposed between the public and the books. They are useful public servants, who manage libraries in the interest of the public…”

Roles of circulation
Most people who have used a library are familiar with the circulation desk. In a medium to large-sized library, the circulation desk is a hub of activity with people asking many questions and bringing up armloads of library materials. In fact, from the viewpoint of many library users, the circulation desk is the library. In order to use the library, they have to talk with the circulation desk staff and apply for a “library card”. Users have to “check out” materials at the circulation desk. And of course, if items become “overdue”, users can expect to receive some kind of “overdue notice” from the circulation desk requesting that the item be returned and a bill outlining the “overdue fines”. All of these procedures tend to lead to certain stereotypes about the library and library personnel. In fact, many people think librarians spend all day checking out books and putting them away. A number of cartoonists have entertained the public with visions of “Conan the Librarian” coming after hapless library users to claim overdue library items, extract overdue fines, and supply punishment for daring to bend, fold, spindle or mutilate library materials. These public perceptions point to the two important roles of library circulation services:

• Control and regulation of access to library materials
• Service and public relations.

Control and regulation of materials
In any size or type of library (public, school, academic, or special), the circulation department provides the library user with the means of utilizing materials housed in the library. The basic purpose of circulation is the control and regulation of library materials. We have come to assume that the use of library materials outside the library as standard operating procedure for most types of libraries. However the concept of freely circulating materials is an idea that only developed in the late 1800s as public libraries became recognized as places that could stimulate improvements in society by helping users to learn on their own.
Prior to 1900, the role of control of library materials was emphasized over use, service, or public relations. For example, a typical Victorian-age free library in Canada might include a grilled-in book stack room from which users requested library staff to retrieve materials that were then read under supervision in a secure reading room within the library. A more “modern” library would have a separate reading area for women. Children under 16 were less fortunate; generally, they w ere completely denied access to library materials. Such “closed stacks” (i.e. book stacks that are not freely accessible to patrons) arrangements emphasized the physical custody of library books – preservation and conservation – over use. These restrictions reflected a centuries long tradition of libraries as places to preserve and guard knowledge. Historically the use of books was restricted because they were very expensive and few people (mostly rich men) were literate. Library personnel were regarded as custodians of materials. Strict control on the circulation of materials was felt to be necessary because they were difficult and costly to replace.
Take a moment to reflect on the types of policies and procedures that might be in place in a Victorian-age Canadian public library. How would it be different from managing a collection that had book stacks that were open to the public and that could be borrowed and used outside the library? Some ideas include:
Library patrons/staff not general public could get access; less freedom/privacy over what could be read and for how long; segregation between males and females, young and old; more careful watching over users.

Service and public relations
The change from excessive conservation and protection to increased concern for public service mirrors the changing societal concept of libraries as places providing free and fair access to information for citizens. As emphasis on the use of books increased, public libraries established “open stacks” (book stacks that were freely available to patrons), allowed materials to be borrowed and used outside the library, lowered the minimum age of borrowers, and established children’s rooms. Academic libraries eventually followed this trend and established less restrictive circulation policies for students. With a greater emphasis on the needs of children, school libraries became much more common place.
A consequence of more liberal access to materials was that keeping track of the materials became much more difficult. Materials might be circulating outside the library, lost, or stolen. Individual users would be interested where a book might be and when they might expect to be able to read it. Policies had to be established for how long materials might be borrowed and procedures developed for dealing with library users who had kept materials beyond the loan period. As a result, circulation services became an important part of basic library functions and a key to good public relations. The following quotation from Mary Plummer, an American public librarian writing in 1893, quaintly sums up the shift to a service orientation that had occurred and the relative importance that circulation now played in this new model:

“The charging or loans system is part of a library’s administration by which
chiefly its communication with borrowers is carried on. The word ‘loan’ applies
to it because the books are lent, and the word charging because every library,
no matter how small, with any pretense at all at having a method, has some way
of keeping account of these loans.
The characteristic of a loan system best appreciated by the public is the speed with which it can receive and deliver books; and as a trifling annoyance, such as having to wait a few minutes for a book.
Another requisite is simplicity. The more complicated the system the greater the chance for error. The third thing to keep in mind is that the less the borrower’s part in the operation the better he likes the system. The library must ask of him only the fact that it is absolutely necessary to have to fill his order, and if there is any red tape it should be kept behind the desk.”
(Plummer, Mary W. Loan Systems. Library Journal 18 (1893): 242-246)

Not so surprisingly, little has changed since 1893. Since the first and last contact of many users is the circulation desk, public opinion of a library can be affected by the speed with which material can be borrowed and the quality of the interaction with circulation staff. Users appreciate libraries that are well organized and library circulation systems that are simple, accurate, and require little effort on their part. Fair, yet flexible application of policies regarding the circulation of materials is also an important part of public relations. Especially since circulation staff may have to deal with dissatisfied patrons with overdues, missing books, or borrower registration problems. As with other positions involving working with the public, courteous and efficient service from the staff reflect well on the library.

Circulation functions
Circulation is one of the most visible jobs in the library and involves three sections of the library:
* The circulation desk or point of charging out library materials.
* The bookstacks (closed or open) where the library materials are housed.
* A circulation records section where clerical routines, such as filing, compiling statistical reports, preparing overdues, and computing fines, are carried out.

In larger libraries a full-time professional librarian may be in charge of circulation services and will have various library technicians and clerical support staff handling the day-to-day responsibilities of circulation. The librarian would take responsibility for developing policy and procedure, dealing with user complaints, and for compiling and analyzing statistical reports. The smaller the library the less clerical and professional duties are separated and the more all responsibilities fall on the person managing the library.

While open stacks are most typical in libraries, there are some situations that require closed stacks. For example, many academic libraries have rare book rooms that contain library materials that are irreplaceable and valuable. Such collections would be closed stacks as the emphasis is on conservation and preservation. As well, some collections within a given library may not circulate or circulate on a limited basis. Most libraries have “reference collections” containing items such as dictionaries, atlases, and handbooks that are regularly consulted by librarians and the public. Such collections usually do not circulate because it is more convenient to have them readily available for quick consultation. As well, many school, academic, and even public libraries have “reserve areas”. Material housed in reserve is typically set up so that students can borrow it for a couple of hours for use in relation to a class they are taking. Placing the item in the reserve areas with a time restriction on the length of time it can be borrowed ensures that all students in the class have access to the material for their class.

Components of an ideal circulation system
Although by 1900 a general shift had occurred in the philosophy of the library as a place to conserve and preserve materials to a place that emphasized access to information and service to the public, librarians had not abandoned the need to control and regulate materials. In the quest to keep accurate records of library materials (e.g. circulating, on the shelf, missing) various types of circulation systems have been developed. Many of these systems have focused on four objectives:

• To be easy for patrons to use and library personnel to operate.
• To save borrower time, to speed up the routine of checking in and out.
• To reduce costs.
• To relieve librarians for more professional work.

As well, they have attempted to answer four basic questions:

• Who has each item?
• When are items due?
• What items does each borrower have checked out?
• How many items were checked out?

In an effort to answer these questions, systems have focused on providing library staff and patrons with information and services in five categories:

Category of Information or Service	Elements	Purpose
Patron information	Name Address Borrower identification number Category of borrower	Determines the patron's eligibility to borrow, his or her borrowing privileges and how to contact the batron
Material information	Author Title Call number Copy number	Determines which items are in the library, where they are located and how many copies there are of each item
Loan information	Date due Date returned Loan period	Enables circulation staff to quickly and efficiently charge and discharge materials and to keep current and accurate records of circulation transactions
Collection management information	Combines the elements from the patron, material and loan files	Permits the production of various reports, such as, overdue, recall and hold notices, lists of materials charged out to patrons, calculations of fines
Statistical information	Reports generated by categorizing and tallying various types of circulation transactions	Staff can determine how many items circulate, the number of borrowers, or which areas of the collection receive the most

Types of circulation systems
The history of circulation systems reflects changes in technology over the past 100 years. While early circulation systems were manual requiring library staff to record and file information by hand, later systems began to take advantage of technologies such as photography and punch cards that automated some circulation functions. The advent of the computer and more recently the microcomputer has meant that libraries could develop fully automated circulation systems.

Manual systems
While automated systems have become very common in libraries, manual and semi-automated systems are still used. Primarily these systems continue to be used in small to medium-sized libraries where the cost of investing in a computer and the necessary software may not be justifiable, the number of library users is small enough that a manual system continues to be convenient for both staff and patrons. The most common manual system in use is the Newark System and its variations. The Gaylord system and Transaction Systems are further developments in manual systems that attempt to mechanize some steps of the circulation process.

Newark System
Prior to the 1890s most libraries used a ledger system to record loans in consecutive order. In some libraries those journal entries were transferred into two ledgers: one a record of books by borrower and the other a record of borrowers of each book. Ledger systems were expensive and forced patrons to wait while information was recorded. By the turn of the century, ledger and other experimental manual systems had been almost uniformly replaced by the Newark System, developed in the Newark, New Jersey, Public Library around 1900.The Newark System involves the insertion of a circulation card with the call number, author and title in a paper pocket in each item. A date due slip is pasted on the pocket. Each patron may also be issued some kind of borrower’s identification card that gives them a library identification number.
Charging materials is a straightforward process with the following steps:
1. The patron presents the items they would like to borrow and their identification card at the circulation desk. Library staff verify that the call number on the circulation card and the pocket match.
2. The date material is due back in the library is stamped on the date due slip and on the book card.
3. The borrower’s name or identification number is entered on the circulation card. There are two variations on this step: a.) self-charge, where the borrower writes his/her own name and/or identification number on the first available blank line, b.) staff-charge, where a library staff member writes the borrower’s identification number on the circulation card.
4. The circulation card is placed in a tray for filing at the end of the day.
5. At the end of the day, all circulation cards are arranged in the desired order. The recommended order is first by date due, and then by author or numerically by call number.

Gaylord system
Efforts to speed the process of transcribing borrower information have lead to various innovations in methods of recording borrower information. The Dickman Book Charging Machine, introduced in 1927, was a hand-operated imprinter that recorded the call number, borrower registration number, and date due from embossed metal tags. In 1932, Gaylord Brothers Incorporated took this idea a step further and introduced an electric book charging machine. The machine incorporates a date imprinter that can be easily changed. Embossed library identification cards are issued to each patron. To check out material the user presents the card. Library staff take the circulation card and patron identification card and insert them into slots on the machine. The machine imprints patron information and date due information onto the circulation card. As with the Newark system, date due information is provided to the patron and circulation cards are filed at the end of the day.

Transaction systems
Another attempt at automating the process of charging and discharging material is the transaction system, first introduced in the 1930s. Although there are a number of versions, the one most often seen is photographic charging. At the point of charging, a camera is used to photograph the patron’s identification card (or other form of identification), the circulation card and a numbered and dated transaction card. The transaction card which also serves as the date due slip is inserted into the pocket and returned to the user. The photographic record of daily transactions is stored on microfilm. The beginning and finishing numeric sequences for the day are recorded. Although the microform provides a complete permanent record of all loans, it is very difficult to provide information on the status of any one item.

Limitations of manual systems
All of the above have a number of limitations:

• Limited information access points because creating duplicate records to increase access points is time consuming and costly.
• Slow and difficult processes for determining the circulation status of a given item.
• The potential for misfiled records.
• No means of easily providing users with a list of all items they have currently charged.
• No means by which library users can be informed of pending due dates.
• Provision of only the most rudimentary statistics because of the time involved in manually compiling detailed information.
• Difficulty in determining if a patron has overdues or other lost items which should prevent them from being able to borrow more material.

Automated systems
Although the previously mentioned circulation systems were a step above hand-written, chronologically arranged ledgers, their limitations still hampered the efficiency of circulation staff in completing day-to-day tasks, and severely limited the variety of services and information that staff were able to deliver. In the mid-1970s more and more libraries began using computers to handle various library functions. Circulation was an obvious first choice for automation in libraries because of the many efficiencies that could be achieved.

Online processing
Early automated systems were developed in-house and used a batch processing method of processing circulation transactions. In present day circulation systems, all processing occurs in real time. Circulation systems that are purchased from a commercial vendor are often called “turnkey systems” because they are ready to be installed and operated. They do not require any debugging because they have already been tested and can function without the assistance of a systems specialist. The disadvantage over a system designed in-house is that the library cannot typically make any modifications to the system that may be required due to unique policy or procedure within the library. Larger libraries or library systems that purchase turnkey systems usually do some custom development so that the system meets local needs. This necessitates maintaining a staff of computer programmers and systems specialists.

Storage of automated circulation records
Circulation systems can be designed in one of two ways:
1. the absence reporting method (also called transaction systems)
2. the full database method
The absence reporting method tracks items in circulation only. Records are added and deleted constantly. As books are circulated, their titles and call numbers (or other identification codes) are entered in the system, and as they are returned, their records are deleted. Not much computer disk space is required to store circulation records. Those familiar with database software, such as Microsoft Access, could create a simple circulation system using the absences reporting method. The database would not be a substitute for a card catalogue but would provide basic information on circulating items.
The full database method involves the entire collection. Typically, the full cataloguing record for every item in the library is input into the database. Instead of adding and deleting records continually, records are permanently retained in the database and coded as they are checked out or in. A whole database system requires more computer space because records for the whole collection are included.
Systems that include full cataloguing records will typically also permit users to access this information. An online public or patron access catalogue (OPAC) enables patrons to search a library’s holdings from a computer terminal and also gives information on the circulation status of an item. Circulation functions would only be one part of a larger integrated automated system.
Besides circulation and the OPAC, most integrated online systems also includes acquisitions, serials and cataloguing modules.

Basic features of automated circulation systems
Regardless of whether a system is developed in-house or purchased from a vendor, most libraries look for the following basic features:
1. Efficient and effective charge and discharge functions
2. Able to record and access pertinent user information
3. Automatic maintenance of accurate, up-to-date circulation records
4. Information detailing availability of individual items
5. Information that allows tracking of an item’s progress through its processing stages in the library
6. Efficient hold and recall functions
7. Automatic production of overdue, recall, and hold notices and bills
8. Automatic calculation of fines
9. Able to handle different loan periods, user categories, and item type categories
10. Able to handle course reserves
11. Provides a variety of statistical information
12. Flexibility in handling increases in collection size, number of users, and number of transactions.

In addition, the system might include additional features, such as various batch-processed reports, or flexibility in setting user categories and loan periods. Another desirable feature is permitting patrons to access their own circulation records so that they can review items that they have borrowed or place their own holds.

Charging and discharging with automated circulation systems
Information regarding a circulation transaction can be entered in one of two ways. The first way is to key in all information about a particular item or patron. Transaction systems typically work in this manner.

Most libraries with automated circulation systems have increased efficiency in the circulation process through the use of barcode systems. Barcodes would be similar to those used in grocery stores. Each individual item in the library receives a barcode label. The barcode number corresponds to catalogue information about the item. Similarly, each patron is assigned an identification number that corresponds to the barcode placed on their card. This creates two computer files of information:

1. Patron information filed by identification number
2. Item information filed by the barcode number on the item

Barcode readers exist in various forms including: pen or wand, CCD Scanner, laser scanners, and swipe readers.

Information on the barcode label is read by projecting a beam of light from the barcode reader. Patterns of light and dark are read and translated into a digital number which can be utilized by the computer for processing. Barcode labels have a number of advantages over book cards including:

· the labels can be affixed to all types of items (e.g. videotapes, audiocassettes)
· the labels do not have to be removed in the charging and discharging process
· the labels are not as subject to mutilation or damage as book cards and pockets
· labels do not require book pockets

There are two main types of schemes for encoding information on barcodes:

1. Codabar

This is the most frequently used scheme in libraries. The rectangle of lines and spaces translates into 14 digits which are displayed below the barcode. The first digit is used to identify whether the barcode is for a patron or for an item. Digits 2-5 identify the instituition. Digits 6-13 represent patron or item information. The final digit is an error checking digit.

2. Code 39
The rectangle of lines and spaces translates into 10 digits. The first digit is used to identify whether the barcode is for a patron or for an item. The next 2 digits identify the library. The last 7 digits are a unique code which represents either a patron or an item.
In addition to the numbers, barcodes also have small stop and start characters embedded into them. These characters inform the barcode reader that the beginning or the end of the barcode has been scanned. They also allow barcodes to be read from either direction (i.e., left to right or right to left).

Charging routines involve:
1. Running the barcode scanner over the patron’s barcode number on their identification card and over the barcode of each item that is being borrowed. This step is very important because it links the patron information file to the item information file.
2. Stamping due-date on a slip placed in book (or printing a transaction slip with items and due dates).

Discharging routines involve:
1. Running the pen or wand run across the item barcode label. This breaks the patron-item link and updates all appropriate files such as fine records, recalls, etc.
2. Removing due-date slips and reshelving the item.

Online inquiries
Most online systems will permit you to do two types of inquiries: (1) item inquiry, (2) patron inquiry. With an item inquiry, it should be possible to search the item by title, author, or barcode label and answer the following questions:
1. Is the item on file?
2. Does the item circulate?
3. Does it circulate to this patron type?
4. Is the item available at this branch?
5. How many copies are there of this item?
6. Is the item charged out? If so, what is the due date?
7. Is the item on hold? If so, what kind of hold? Which patron is next in line?
8. Is the item overdue? If so, has it been recalled?
9. Is the item missing, withdrawn, on order, in process, or claimed returned by the patron?

It should be possible to search for patron information by name or bar code label. This information should display on screen with a list of all items currently charged, fines, payments, and any messages. Due to a concern for ensuing patron privacy most circulation systems do not keep records of all items which have ever been borrowed by a patron. Reasons for patrons block should be evident (e.g. has not paid overdue fines). As well, it should be a relatively easy matter to register a new patron including name, address, and borrower privileges.

Notices and reports
The system usually also permits various types of circulation notices to be generated including: overdues, recalls and holds. As well, the system should be able to produce reports on demand by: categories of items, patrons, call numbers and items added or withdrawn; by check-out date; by number of titles and copies owned by a branch; by copies currently missing or overdue; by list of titles with cumulative circulation per copy; by total number of patrons; by number of new patrons; by number of patrons registered by status, age, geographical location; and number of transactions by patron category, age, or residential location.

Vendors of automated systems
Although various automated circulation systems would have many similar features, they will vary in appearance and performance. Many vendors have homepages on the Internet where you can find out about the features of various systems that are available.

Additional references
Cohn, John M., Kelsey, Ann L., and Fiels, Keith Michael. Planning for automation: a how-to-do-it manual for librarians. New York : Neal-Schumann Publishers, Inc., 1992.
Fouty, Kathleen G. Implementing an automated circulation system: a how-to-do-it manual. New York : Neal-Schumann Publishers, Inc., 1994.
Morris, Anne and Dyer, Hilary. Human aspects of library automation. Brookfield, VT : Gower, 1998.

Circulation systems Websites
LibraryLand: Resources for Librarians. Automation Vendors.
List of vendors of automated systems both multi-user operating systems and micro-computer based systems
http://www.rcls.org/libland/autp/dynix.htm

BarCode1: A Web of Information about Barcode.
More than you ever wanted to know about barcodes. Includes specifications for various types of barcodes.
http://www.adams1.com/pub/russadam/barcode1.htm

Appendix 1: Some sample information from automated circulation systems
Information on automated circulation modules from the Websites of the following vendors. The inclusion of this material is not an endorsement of any of these products and is merely provided to you for referral and to give you a feel for the differences that exist between various systems.

a) Follet Software Company http://www.follettsoftware.com
b) Winnibago CIRC/CAT http://www.follettsoftware.com/page/spectrum/
c) SIRS Mandarin

Introduction to libraries: Library Associations

Like libraries themselves, there are many types of library associations. Some represent all types of libraries, library personnel, friends of libraries and library trustees in a particular country. Others address the concerns and needs of a particular type of library and library personnel. It is important to become a member in a library association. While several associations of interest to library workers in Manitoba are highlighted, these would parallel similar library associations of interest to library workers in other jurisdictions. The Canadian Library Association maintains a comprehensive listing of library associations in Canada, by province and territory (plus a list of some major American library associations) in the Resources section of their Website. The specific page is: http://www.cla.ca/Content/NavigationMenu/Resources/Resources/ListofLibraryAssociations/default.htm
The National Library of Canada also maintains a listing of library associations in Canada at: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/8/8/index-e.html

Association membership benefits
There are many benefits of joining library associations. The major benefits are:
1. Networking
2. Continuing education
3. Benchmarking
4. Acquiring new skills
5. Employment opportunities

Networking
Through association membership, meet other library workers in similar types of libraries or similar employment positions. This can be invaluable when faced with a large project, such as automating the library. The experiences of others enable you to be better prepared for the pitfalls to avoid and the level of planning required for such an endeavour. Membership in associations also increases awareness of the resources available in other libraries. This knowledge can enhance ability to provide quality information services.
Another advantage of networking is the fact that there is strength in numbers. It may be impossible for one individual to lobby for changes in copyright legislation, which reflect the needs of libraries. A coalition of library associations can have a far greater impact.

Continuing education
The field of library and information science is a rapidly changing one. It is impossible to learn everything needed to perform well in a position by obtaining a Library Technician Certificate or Diploma. Skills must constantly be upgraded as new technology develops and to be aware of new information resources. The need for keeping current is now called “life-long learning” and it often difficult to accomplish this on your own. To assist their membership in this task, most associations offer continuing education programs. They may hold an annual conference, host a series of workshops, or produce a journal and/or newsletter. Library associations are now beginning to offer extensive continuing education programs at a distance, using video-conferencing and Internet delivery methods.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is comparing your own situation to an existing measurable standard or guideline with a mind to improve your situation. For example, health libraries use lists of standard medical, nursing and allied health reference works and periodical titles to measure the quality of their collections. Library associations often produce salary surveys, which can be used to determine whether your library is paying its employees average, above average or below average salaries. Library associations also produce directories of libraries, which can be used to compare staffing levels, collection sizes and variety of services with similar libraries.Sometimes, if an existing standard or guideline does not yet exist (or is too difficult or expensive to find) for a particular situation, the library might have to do some of its own original research like conduct a survey. This need not be overly difficult, time-consuming or even scientific. Sometimes comparing your own situation to two or three other similar libraries (to ensure that you would be comparing apples to apples) is all you need to determine what your next step would be.For instance, if you suspected that your overdue statistics have been too high for the past several months, you could find two or three other libraries like your own (of the same type, similar size and clientele) to see what their experience has been over a similar time period. Their statistics would become your benchmark. You could plot your results on a graph (no. of overdues on vertical axis, time on horizontal axis) which would reveal how your statistics compare with the other libraries. If your overdues are significantly higher then you might ask those libraries what they do to keep their overdues at a manageable level (they might have something you do not, such as a theft-detection system). If your overdues are lower or about the same, you may decide that it is not worth going any further. Your research would have at least given you some piece of mind that your apparently high overdues are not that high after all!

Acquiring new skills
New skills can be acquired by serving on the library association executive or on committees. For example, by maintaining association membership records, you could learn how to design a database or create customized reports. By serving on a public relations committee you would gain experience in media relations. These skills enhance your ability to compete for employment opportunities requiring skills, which you might not acquire in a present position.

Employment opportunities
Another service provided by library associations is the announcement of employment opportunities in their journals or newsletters, on their home pages on the World Wide Web or listserv over the Internet , or on a recorded telephone message. Some employers prefer listing their vacant positions through library associations, to taking out an advertisement in the local paper, as they are reaching a more targeted audience. By belonging to the association, you may find out about employment opportunities before non-members do.

Types of library associations
There are four major types of library associations:
1. National library associations
2. Provincial library associations
3. International library associations
4. Specialized library associations
Some library associations may fall into more than one category.

National library associations
National library associations represent all types of libraries, library personnel, and trustees within a particular country. The Canadian Library Association, American Library Association and Library Association (UK) are three examples. A primarily objective of this type of library association is to lobby governments on such issues as funding of libraries, copyright and censorship. National library associations may have divisions representing particular types of libraries.
For example, the Canadian Library Association has five divisions.
1. Canadian Association of College and University Libraries (CACUL)
2. Canadian Association of Public Libraries (CAPL)
3. Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services (CASLIS)
4. Canadian Library Trustee’s Association (CLTA)
5. Canadian School Libraries Association (CSLA)
In turn, divisions may have sections or chapters representing a specific geographic area or special service or type of library. For example, CACUL has the Community and Technical College Libraries (CTCL) section and CAPL has the Canadian Association of Children’s Librarians (CACL) Sect ion. CASLIS has chapters in Calgary, Edmonton, Manitoba, Ottawa, Toronto, and Atlantic Canada.For more information about CLA, visit the CLA homepage at http://www.cla.ca/

Provincial library associations
Provincial library associations represent the needs of all types of libraries at the provincial level. These associations often coordinate their lobbying efforts with the national association. The Manitoba Library Association (MLA) represents all types of libraries in Manitoba. Similar to the CLA, there are interest groups representing specialized areas and divisions representing geographical regions within the province. The MLA hosts workshops, conferences and produces an online newsletter and listserv, “MLA NEWSLIST”. To subscribe, go to the MLA Website home page and find the MLA Newslist page on the right. Ensure that the “Subscribe” box is checked off, enter your e-mail address in the specified space and click on “Submit”. You would then be added to the MLA NEWSLIST listserv. The MLA also includes job opportunities on its Website. For more information, visit the MLA Website at: http://www.mla.mb.ca

International library associations
International library associations represent the interests of libraries in more than one country. Consider the following three examples:
1. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) http://www.ifla.org/index.htm
2. International Association of School Librarianship (IASL). It maintains the School Libraries Online Web site at http://www.iasl-online.org/
3. Special Libraries Associations (SLA). SLA is also a special library association which will be discussed below.

Specialized library associations
These associations represent a specific group of library personnel, such as the Manitoba Association of Library Technicians (MALT) http://www.malt.mb.ca or Manitoba Library Trustees Association. They can also represent the interests of a specific type of library, such as the Manitoba Association of Health Information Providers http://www.chla-absc.ca/chapter/mahip/index.html, the Manitoba School Libraries Association, the Canadian Association of Law Libraries http://www.callacbd.ca or the Special Libraries Associations http://www.sla.org
MALT represents the interests of Library Technicians and library support staff throughout Manitoba. It produces a newsletter, sponsors a jobline and hosts workshops and co-sponsors conference events with other Manitoba library associations. MALT awards an annual scholar ship to a student taking the Library and Information Technology program at Red River College. MALT also produces a salary survey of library technicians throughout the province. For more information about MALT, visit http://www.malt.mb.ca
The Special Libraries Association has members from many different countries. It has divisions representing specific types of libraries or subject areas, and chapters representing specific geographic areas. The chapter of most interest to special library personnel in Manitoba is the Western Canadian Chapter (SLA/WCC). SLA now produces Information Outlook, which combines the features of its two former publications, Specialist and Special Libraries. The SLA’s homepage can be visited at http://www.sla.org. SLA/WCC’s homepage is at the following address http://units.sla.org/chapter/cwcn/index.shtml

Introduction to libraries: Types of library workers

Classifications of library personnel
To most people, anyone who works in a library is a librarian. However, libraries have different levels of employees. Although the titles may vary from library to library, there are primarily four classifications of library personnel.
1. Librarian / Teacher Librarian
2. Library Technician
3. Library Assistant
4. Library Clerk

Educational qualifications
The chart below describes the minimum educational qualifications for each level.

Position	Minimum level of education required
Librarian	Master’s Degree in Library Science (MLS) or Bachelor’s Degree in Library Science (BLS) (no longer granted) from an American Library Association (ALA) accredited program.
Teacher-Librarian	Bachelor’s Degree in Education plus additional specialized courses in school libraries. Must also possess a valid teacher’s certificate. Some teacher librarians also have an MLS.
Library Technician	Two year diploma or one year certificate (no longer offered) from community college or technical institute. Lakehead University’s Department of Library and Information Studies program offer s a Bachelor’s Degree in a subject area with a Minor in Information Studies. However, Lakehead’s diploma in Library and Information Studies is being phased out (According to their Website “This program will continue only until those students previously registered have completed the program of study”).
Library Assistant	High school diploma. Some libraries may prefer or require a Library Technician Diploma or Certificate or Bachelor’s Degree in any discipline.
Library Clerk	Often no level of education required. Some libraries may prefer a high school diploma.

Librarians may also possess a Ph.D. and a second master’s degree in another field (such as a Masters of Business Administration). Library technicians and library assistants offer have undergraduate degrees. Some may even have a graduate degree.
Most university libraries have library assistants and will often prefer hiring individuals who have a bachelor’s degree, especially if it is in the same discipline (e.g. arts or sciences) in which that library specializes. The reason for this is the belief that employees with degrees will better understand the mission of a university library and will learn specialized library skills on the job. As more graduates of library technician programs in Canada have also completed several years of university or a degree, university libraries hire library technicians more frequently. The position title, however, has not changed.
There is no level of education required to be a library clerk because the duties tend to be quite basic (e.g. shelving, processing, etc.) and can be readily learned on the job. Some libraries hire high school students on a part-time basis to shelve materials or work at circulation.

Library technician training in Canada
Red River College was the first in Canada to have a Library Technician Program (1962). As early as 1966, the Canadian Library Association studied the training requirements of this new level of library staff. The first edition of their guidelines was published in 1981. Library technician training across Canada follows the second edition of the Canadian Library Association’s Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians (also known as the CLA Guidelines), published in 1993.
Canadian Library Association Task Force on the Professional Review Process for Library Technicians in Canada, Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians, 2nd ed. (Ottawa: Canadian Library Association, 1991)

Types of duties
The types of duties each staff level performs varies from library to library. There is, however, a general consensus that when more than one level of library staff exists, there is a breakdown in duties.For more information on the duties performed by different levels of library staff, refer to:
1. CLA’s Guidelines for the Education of Library Technicians, 1991 edition.
2. Manitoba Association of Library Technicians brochure, “Why Hire a Library Technician?”
3. Manitoba Library Association document “Library Careers in Manitoba” http://mla.mb.ca/library-jobs-and-careers

Duties of professional librarians and teacher–librarians
Professional librarians usually manage a library department or entire library. As managers, they develop policies and ensure that the policies are implemented consistently and appropriately. Librarians report directly to library boards, senior management within a company or to academic administrators. In some organizations, in-depth research or requests for information in highly specialized subject areas are only performed at the professional librarian level.
Teacher-librarians do much more than simply manage school libraries. As teachers first, teacher-librarians lead in the implementation of resource-based learning at the school level. In collaboration with classroom teachers, teacher-librarians integrate information literacy skills throughout the curriculum. Teacher-librarians assist other teachers with curriculum development and provide advice regarding appropriate resources to support existing curriculum. Like professional librarians, teacher-librarians design and implement such library policies as collection development. Usually reporting to school principals, teacher-librarians are also delegated such front-line supervisory tasks as managing school library budgets and staff.

Duties of library technicians
Library technicians support professional librarians and teacher-librarians and perform duties requiring specialized library training, such as cataloguing, bibliographic verification, answering basic reference questions, or instructing library patrons in the use of the OPAC, CD-ROM resources, or library equipment, such as microfiche readers. Library technicians often supervise other staff members, including library technicians or library clerks. Library technicians may sometimes also manage small (often one-person) libraries or departments within larger libraries, under the supervision of professional librarians.

Duties of library assistants
Library assistants also support professional librarians or teacher-librarians. The only major difference between them and library technicians is that they do not necessarily possess a certificate or diploma, but rather receive “on-the-job” training. As they gain more specialized training and experience, they can move into supervisory positions.

Duties of library clerks
Library clerks perform duties that require little specialized training. Such duties include shelving, processing and checking out or discharging library materials.

Staffing levels in small libraries
In small or one-person libraries, there may be professional librarians shelving library materials, or library technicians reporting to senior level administration within a company. The emphasis is on providing quality library service within existing staffing levels rather than assigning specific duties to specific positions.

Effect on library automation on staffing levels
Before computers were available, much of library work was labour intensive and required special skills. Only libraries with few staff allowed library technicians, assistants and clerks to perform non-clerical tasks. Computer technology streamlined many repetitive tasks, such as checking out and discharging materials, and most importantly, allowed libraries to easily share bibliographic records. No longer was it necessary to have professional staff interpreting complex cataloguing rules if cataloguing copy was available from another library or a commercial source. Well-trained library technicians or library assistants were able to search for bibliographic records and to make minor modifications to reflect the local library’s cataloguing practices and holdings.

Effect of fiscal restraint on staffing levels
In recent years, financial pressures have necessitated that library administrators find more economical methods of providing library services. This often results in re-evaluating which duties should be performed at the professional level and which should not. This is not only a trend in libraries. Throughout society organizational structures are flattening, often resulting reductions in mid-management level positions. To compensate the loss of mid-management, team building is frequently emphasized in organizations. Although assignment of new duties can lead to more challenging and rewarding work for library technicians, it is often accompanied by re-deployment of staff, rather than large salary increments or increased managerial responsibilities. As a result, library workers can experience burn-out and a sense of frustration.

Alternative careers
Many library workers are seeking out alternative careers. This began to take off in the 1980s when publicly funded libraries (i.e. academic, public and school libraries) began to experience significant budget cutbacks. Ironically, this occurred in the midst of a rising deluge of information which more and more people found increasingly difficult to access and manage. Although the need for information professionals has increased by leaps and bounds, the demand for traditional library workers has remained constant or it has even fallen. The problem is that many do not recognize that library workers are precisely people who are in the best position to help them wade through information and develop their own information literacy skills.
For this reason, library workers are increasingly taking their futures into their own hands, marketing their valuable skills and creating their own opportunities. Thus, alternative careers is still a growing trend today. Librarians and library technicians have obtained positions as information consultants, webmasters, sales representatives for publishing firms, to name a few.
For more information on this entrepreneurial spirit among library workers and the ways library workers are finding∕creating their own employment, see the article “The New Information Pros” by Lisa Peryman from the November 1997 issue of Quill & Quire. It discusses skills library workers possess to enable them to work in other areas. Françoise Hébert’s article “Looking for work” accompanies Lisa Peryman’s article. It offers guidelines to assist library workers use their skills as they embark on the adventure of their alternative careers. The American Library Association’s Guide to Employment Sources in the Library and Information Professions (2001) includes a section, “using information skills in non-library settings”. The Website for this resource is at: http://www.ala.org/ala/educationcareers/employment/resources/employmentguide05.cfm
Finally, the Toronto Chapter of the Special Libraries Association maintains a Webpage on “Alternative Careers and Personal Development” at: http://units.sla.org/toronto/resources/alternativejobs.asp

Employment outlook
The employment outlook for library workers overall is expected to be about “average” through 2010. For an explanation as to what this means and a detailed analysis of the Canadian market for library workers consult Job futures 2000, outlooks by occupations at http://www.jobfutures.ca/en/home.shtml produced by Human Resources Development Canada. Enter “library” as the search term and get links to most of the major types of library workers. Library workers are included under National Occupational Code no. 521 “Technical Occupations in Libraries…”
For a similar analysis of the U.S. market, consult the Occupational outlook handbook (2002-03 edition) at http://stats.bls.gov/oco published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Labor. Enter “library” as the search term and get links to most of the major library staffing levels, including library technicians.

Contact list
For more information on library workers, library science and library technology programs, library careers and employment in libraries, contact the following sources of information:

Canadian Library Association
328 Frank Street
Ottawa, Ontario K2P 0X8
Phone: (613) 232 9625
Web site: http://www.cla.ca

Manitoba Association of Library Technicians
Box 1872
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 3R1
Phone: (204) 885-7581 (Job Bank)
Website: http://www.malt.mb.ca

Manitoba Association of Health Information Providers
Box 232, Postal Station C
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3M 3S7
Website: http://www.chla-absc.ca/chapter/mahip/index.html

Manitoba Library Association
606 100 Arthur Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 1H3
Phone: (204) 943-4567
Fax: (204) 942-1555
Website: http://www.mla.mb.ca

Manitoba School Library Association
c/o Manitoba Teacher’s Society
191 Harcourt Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J 3H2
Phone: (204) 888-7961
http://home.merlin.mb.ca/~msla